Chapter 5. Research Design and Methods
5.4 Research Methods and Data Collection
5.4.2 Interviews Semi Structured Interviews Interviews
The interviews were semi-structured in nature. In a semi-structured interview the interviewer has a list of questions or fairly specific topics to be covered and hence some control, but the interviewee has a great deal of leeway in how to reply. Questions do not have to follow the exact way they are laid out in the interviewers schedule and additional questions may be asked throughout the course of the interview. Generally all of the questions the interviewer has on their schedule will be asked and they will be fairly consistent from interviewee to interviewee. (Bryman, 2001; Creswell, 2003)
Semi-structured interviews differ from unstructured interviews where the interviewer may have a brief set of prompts or perhaps just one question and the respondent answers freely with the interviewer picking up on new avenues for questioning as they progress. Structured interviews are more similar to a questionnaire or survey style approach whereby the respondent has relatively little leeway to discuss beyond the boundaries of specific questions (Easterby-Smith et al, 1991, Bryman, 2001).
The reasons for conducting semi-structured interviews were threefold. Firstly because there was a clear focus on what should be investigated, as derived from the research objectives.
Therefore specific issues needed to be addressed and a semi-structured approach allowed for
them to be covered in a logical fashion within the course of the interview. The second reason was because the interviewees needed to be allowed a certain amount of freedom to discuss certain areas and to elaborate on factors and discuss what they felt was most important. Finally, a multiple-case approach was being used and hence comparability across cases was required. Cross case comparability also reflects the nature of benchmarking, whereby the same processes need to be examined within each comparator organisation.
The interviews were all conducted face to face at the interviewees place of work, which also allowed for a visit to the site. Creswell (2003) states that qualitative research that takes place in the natural setting allows the researcher to develop a level of detail about the individual or place and to be more involved in the experience of the participants. Interviews were recorded onto minidisc, this is discussed in section
5.4.4. All lasted approximately one hour, the shortest was 45 minutes and the longest one hour and 20 minutes, and were split into various sections to be covered. The same schedule of questions was used at each of the case study sites, with minor modifications being made to suit the individual characteristics of each site and the interviewees area of expertise. The interviews were conducted by first introducing the research and its aim. The interviews began with some introductory questions about the respondents personal travel to work preferences and their role within the organisation, followed by more in-depth questions on specific themes. These tended to be both direct and indirect in nature depending on the information requirement and were usually then supplemented with follow up, probing and specifying types of question (Bryman, 2001). The interviews and meeting were conducted in a way which allowed for some social interaction, rapport and trust to be developed with the interviewee which enabled questions to be answered more freely and openly. This is regarded as important by Jones (2004) who states that the interviewee should be able to trust the interviewer if they are to provide high quality data. Care was taken to avoid bias when asking questions, often regarded as crucial in interviewing, although it was recognised that due to the complicated and shifting process that exists between two individuals there can never be exact replication between different interviews (Easterby-Smith et al, 1991; Jones, 2004). Where respondents had expertise in specific areas, more attention was given to these topics. The interview questions for Heathrow Airport are shown in Figure 5.1, Addenbrooke’s Hospital in Figure 5.2, The University of Bristol in Figure 5.3 and Pfizer in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.1: Interview Questions for Heathrow Airport
Travel to Work Questions
General introductory questions about interviewees travel to work choices.
1) Current Employee Car Parking Situation
What are your views on the current employee car parking situation at Heathrow? (with regard to capacity, congestion, security, permit allocation)
What do you perceive to be the main problems (if any) with employee car parking?
2) The Future – Is there a need to change?
Do you think more needs to be done to reduce the number of employees driving to work? Why?
Do you think action needs to be taken to change the current employee car parking practices? Why?
What are your views on the statement “the problem will sort itself out”?
What are the main drivers to changing the current employee car parking strategy?
What would you perceive to be the main barriers to any change?
If there were no stringent restrictions on environmental pollution or an imposed parking cap, what do you think the airport would do?
3) Parking Charge
Do you think the introduction of a direct car parking charge for employees would be successful in reducing the number of people driving to work?
What factors would contribute to its success or failure?
Do you think the introduction of a parking charge would have any negative impacts?
Do you think employees should have to pay directly for their car parking? Why?
Do you think the current system, whereby most employers absorb parking charges, is sustainable?
Do you think this system is equitable? (e.g. non-drivers do not get the same benefits)
Would a charge have a big enough impact in order to achieve the T5 cap, and environmental pollution limits?
What do you think would act as a greater deterrent to driving to work – a charge or a lack of available spaces?
Are there any other measures you think would be effective in reducing the number of employees driving to work? Would a combination of measures work?
4) Staff Acceptance
What do you think the staff reaction would be if they had to pay to park?
Do you think that the introduction of a parking charge would impact on recruitment and retention?
Staff focus groups revealed that the high proportion of shift workers was likely to be a large barrier to any changes to the current car parking due to the lack of alternatives available, particularly at
inconvenient times - how do you see any problems in this area being overcome?
Do you think revenue hypothecation from employee car parking would help to gain staff acceptance?
Do you think the alternatives in place at present are good enough to support the introduction of a direct parking charge? If no, how much improvement is required and in which areas?
5) Implementation
What would you regard as being the most effective way of introducing an employee parking charge at Heathrow? (e.g. gradual or big bang, all staff or only a selection of staff etc)
Do you think it is possible for Heathrow to learn from “best practice” elsewhere? (either airports or non-airport companies, for example hospitals and universities)
What factors have to be considered that are specific to Heathrow?
If a strategic change such as the introduction of an employee car parking charge was decided upon, what would your role be in its introduction?
How important do you think it is that top-level managers and directors fully support any new strategy?
6) Consultation
If an employee parking charge was to be introduced, how would the consultation process be organised?
Who would need to be involved?
Are there any similar examples of such policies that have required airport wide consultation? How have these worked?
Chapter 5: Research Design and Methods
Are there any established bodies to aid with such consultation?
7) The Way Forward
What do you think is the way forward in terms of the airport’s need to reduce the number of employees driving to work?
Figure 5.2: Interview Questions for Addenbrooke's Hospital
Travel to Work Questions
General introductory questions about interviewees travel to work choices.
1) The Travel Plan a) Overview of the travel plan:
What is the main aim of your travel plan?
What are the key elements of the travel plan?
What is the scope of the travel plan? (i.e. does it include staff, visitors, patients, deliveries) When was the travel plan introduced?
Was there any formal strategy in place before?
What prompted you to develop a formal travel plan?
b) Implementation of the travel plan:
Were the different elements introduced all at once or in stages?
If implemented in stages, in what order were they introduced?
What was the reason for this approach?
Who drove the introduction of the travel plan (top down)?
2) Incentives – Sustainable Transport Modes
What provision has been made as part of your travel plan for the following sustainable transport modes?
a) Public Transport b) Cycling c) Walking d) Car sharing
What methods are used to encourage car sharing? (i.e. preferential treatment) Currently how many staff are involved in the scheme?
How is the car sharing scheme regulated?
Have you experienced any difficulties in regulating the scheme?
How have these difficulties been dealt with?
How are these sustainable transport modes funded?
3) Disincentives - Car Parking Charges a) Overview of the car park system:
How many people do you currently employ?
How many staff parking spaces do you have?
Where are staff permitted to park? Are staff car parks separate to visitors/patients, or combined?
Are any members of staff allocated a reserved parking space?
b) Parking charges:
Why was it decided to use charges to manage the demand for car parking?
Were other techniques considered?
What is the actual charge and has it increased since it was first introduced?
Is there an annual review of the charge amount?
Does every member of staff pay the same? Or does it vary? (e.g. income related?) Is anybody exempt from the parking charge?
How is the charge paid (e.g. cash, payroll deduction) and is it based on daily, weekly, monthly or annual usage?
c) Revenue:
How much revenue is generated through the parking charges and how is this money used?
d) Enforcement:
How do you control access to staff car parks? Specifically what technology is used?
How is this technology used to enforce the parking charges?
Have you experienced any abuse of this system?
Are there penalties for non-payment of charges? What are they?
e) The level of consultation involved:
Who was consulted prior to the charge being introduced? How long was the consultation period?
Chapter 5: Research Design and Methods
Is there any on-going consultation?
f) Acceptance:
What was the staff reaction to the idea of parking charges prior to their introduction?
What was the staff reaction to parking charges when first implemented?
Did you encounter any unexpected issues? (e.g. off-site parking) How were any problems overcome?
What is the staff reaction now?
Are managers included in the scheme - do they support it?
Can individual members of staff be monitored?
Is this an acceptance issue? If so, how was it overcome?
g) Administration and costs:
How is the parking charge scheme administered?
How much time does this take?
How much does the scheme cost to administer each year?
Capital costs, maintenance costs, administration costs…?
Are there members of staff devoted to administering the parking strategy/travel plan?
What are the staff time costs in terms of planning and implementation?
4) Effectiveness
How is the effectiveness of the travel plan measured? e.g. modal shift Since the introduction of the travel plan, what targets have been set?
Have these targets been achieved?
If the targets have not been achieved, what do you think the reasons for this are?
If the targets have been achieved, do you know how much is attributable to parking charges, and how much to the introduction of other measures (e.g. improved public transport, car sharing etc)?
Do you believe there still to be an issue of too many employees travelling to work by car?
5) Future
Are any enhancements/changes planned to the current travel plan elements?
e.g. Are there any plans to reduce the number of staff car parking spaces? If so, when will this occur and by how many?
What targets have been set for future progress?
Do you have any recommendations that you would make to other organisations considering introducing parking charges?
Figure 5.3: Interview Questions for the University of Bristol
Travel to Work Questions
General introductory questions about interviewees travel to work choices.
1) Parking Overview
Can you give a brief outline of how car parking permits are allocated, and the distinction between the different categories?
Roughly what proportion of staff are included in each of the three categories?
Are any members of staff allocated an individual/reserved space?
Are all staff entitled to at least a category C parking pass?
In terms of category B, how does the point system work whereby staff are judged on set criteria?
Have you experienced any problems with the point system approach? (e.g. appeals) If so, how have these problems been overcome?
Are these dealt with in an individual basis?
How do other businesses/residents in the area fit in with your parking management?
Do you share any car parks with other organisations?
2) Parking charges and permits
Why was it decided to use charges to manage the demand for car parking?
Were other techniques considered?
Is anybody exempt from the parking charge? (i.e. disabled) Why are these groups exempt?
Why was a salary based charge adopted?
How is the £10 annual charge paid? (cash or payroll deduction) Can you explain how the daily scratch card system works?
Where are the scratch card permits bought from, and how are they paid for? (cash, payroll deduction - weekly, monthly, annually.)
In what quantity can permits be bought?
How are the scratch cards delivered to staff?
3) Enforcement
Do you control access to staff car parks in any way (e.g. barrier equipment?)
How is the parking charge system monitored (e.g. manually – check correct parking category and proof of payment?)
Have you experienced much abuse of the system?
How are university staff found to be abusing the system dealt with?
Do you have any issues with non-university staff parking in university car parks?
If yes – how is this dealt with?
Have you experienced any issues with off-site parking? Is this a major problem?
4) Consultation
What process of consultation did you go through prior to the charge being introduced? Who was consulted?
How long was the consultation period?
Is there any on-going consultation?
What role does the Travel to Work Implementation Group (TWIG) play?
How useful was the consultation process in gaining acceptance? Is there anything you would have done differently in hindsight?
What was the most valuable outcome of the consultation?
Did you experience anything unexpected?
What recommendations would you give to other organisations introducing the charge in term of consultation?
5) Implementation and Acceptance
What was the staff reaction to the idea of parking charges prior to their introduction?
What was the staff reaction to parking charges when first implemented?
What were the advantages of a ‘big bang’ approach to introduction?
in terms of its acceptance
in terms of its ease of implementation
Chapter 5: Research Design and Methods
Were alternative modes of transport in place before the charge was introduced? How important was this to gain acceptance?
What is the general staff reaction to the charge now?
Do you believe the parking charge to be an issue for recruitment and retention?
How have any negative attitudes been overcome?
Do you think the salary based charge is more acceptable than a standard charge?
What are the main factors in gaining acceptance from staff?
Is the scheme supported by top-management? How important do you regard this to be?
How important is the role of a ‘project champion’ in gaining acceptance?
6) Targets and Progress
What methods are used to conduct the staff travel survey? How often does this take place?
Do you have to achieve targets as part of your travel plan?
What are these targets? How are they set?
Have these targets been achieved?
If the targets have not been achieved, what do you think the reasons for this are?
If the targets have been achieved, do you know how much is attributable to parking charges, and how much to the introduction of other measures (e.g. improved public transport, car sharing etc)?
Are the car parks currently at or near capacity?
If parking spaces are in short supply, what acts as the greater deterrent to driving – lack of space or parking charges?
Do you believe there still to be an issue of too many employees travelling to work by car?
7) The Future
Are any enhancements/changes planned to the current car park strategy?
Are there any plans to reduce the number of staff car parking spaces?
Will the percentage charge amount be reconsidered in the future?
What targets have been set for future progress?
Do you have any recommendations that you would make to other organisations considering introducing parking charges?
Figure 5.4: Interview Questions for Pfizer
Travel to Work Questions
General introductory questions about interviewees travel to work choices.
1) The Travel Plan a) Overview of the travel plan:
What is the main aim of your travel plan?
What is the scope of the travel plan? (i.e. does it include staff, visitors, patients, deliveries) When was the travel plan introduced?
Was there any formal strategy in place before?
What prompted you to develop a formal travel plan?
b) Implementation of the travel plan:
Were the different elements introduced all at once or in stages?
Which elements of the travel plan were introduced first?
What was the reason for this approach?
Who drove the introduction of the travel plan (top down)?
2) Incentives – Sustainable Transport Modes
What provision has been made as part of your travel plan for the following sustainable transport modes?
a) Public Transport b) Cycling c) Walking d) Car Sharing
What methods are used to encourage car sharing? (i.e. preferential treatment) Currently how many staff are involved in the scheme?
How is the car sharing scheme regulated?
Have you experienced any difficulties in regulating the scheme?
How have these difficulties been dealt with?
e) Other Strategies
Local recruitment drives Home working/compressed working week Video conferencing Cash payments instead of company cars
How are these sustainable transport modes funded?
3) Parking Cash Out
a) Overview of the car park system:
How many people do you currently employ?
How many staff parking spaces do you have?
Where are staff permitted to park? Are staff car parks separate to visitors/patients, or combined?
Are any members of staff allocated a reserved parking space?
b) Parking cash out:
Why was it decided to use cash out to manage the demand for car parking?
Were other measured considered? (e.g. parking charges?) If so, why were they discounted?
How does the parking cash out scheme operate?
Does every member of staff receive the same amount of money?
Does the scheme differ for shift workers?
Is anybody not included in the cash out scheme?
c) Administration and costs:
How is the parking cash out scheme administered?
How much time does this take?
How much does the scheme cost to administer each year?
Capital costs, maintenance costs, administration costs…?
Capital costs, maintenance costs, administration costs…?