was performed. Content, such as social media guidelines from the 23 CSU campuses, was examined.
Quantitative research is an important part of research. According to Vogt (2007), research questions, design, measurement, and analysis are the pillars on which a research investigation is built. Each supports different aspects of the research enterprise, and it is important to link concepts and the empirical world (Vogt, 2007). Nonetheless, it is imperative that the researcher gather the survey results and directly apply them to the study at hand. The process of measurement is central to
quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between
observed and statistical data of quantitative relationships. It is best when conducting a survey to use a Likert-type scale as well as open-ended questions.
The study was also exploratory because it examined an emerging
phenomenon. The objective for an exploratory study is to formulate precise questions that may be able to answer future research (Flick, 2006).
The three research questions addressed in the study focused on the use of social media networks as a tactical plan to shape the institutions brand. The first question qualitatively evaluated the IMC department‘s personnel. The second
question examined other possible variables through a qualitative survey administered to public universities. The third question explored documents or strategic plans that the IMC departments had established. The exact questions were as follows.
1. How is social media used by the IMC department at each higher education institution and how has it changed the PR profession in higher education? 2. How are the IMC departments in the CSU campuses using social media to
shape the university brand and other communication functions? 3. Are the higher education institutions using a procedures guideline for
social media?
Guiding Framework
To answer the research questions, a theoretical framework was created to explore and view the subject of the study (Figure 3) and how each segment of the social media framework integrated the use of social media in the higher education departments. Interviewing marketing administrators was another concrete way to explore the framework. In addition, I explored how vital social media is to branding, marketing share, and crisis communication and surveyed the 23 CSU campuses.
Figure 3. Internet social media network purpose of use for higher education institutions.
Agenda-setting theory. As discussed in Chapter 1, McCombs and Protess
(1991) had the idea of agenda-setting, which has been articulated for well over a half century. In 1972, McCombs, Shaw, and David Weaver introduced the idea that themass media could tell the public which issues are of major importance in the world by the amount of coverage they give to each issue.
Site and Participant Selection
The participants consisted of three higher education institutions. The researcher emailed the constituents for an interview appointment and interviewed each participant at his or her institution or via phone. A community college, public university, and a private university were selected for this part of the study to provide a wide examination of the use of social media within the three major areas of higher education. Moreover, because of their market driven and business orientation for profit, proprietary higher education institutions were excluded from this study. This part of the study examineed their IMC department use of the social media networks and what type of messages they send out to the public about the institutions. These data helped to provide a greater understanding of the relationships in Figure 4.
The second part of the study included an examination of the use of social media by all of the CSU campuses‘ IMC departments. Surveys were administered to the 23 CSU campuses, and questions were asked on how social media has changed the way they market their institutions and how they are reaching out to students or the public. The CSU campuses were chosen by the researcher to represent a state-wide system of public universities. The third part of the study reviewed the social media guidelines provided by the 23 CSU campuses.
Data Sources and Collection
The data sources for examining the research questions were collected from (a) interviews of marketing professionals from a private university, a public university, and a community college; (b) surveys administered to the 23 CSU campuses; and (c) a content analysis of available social media guidelines.
The original, drafted interview questions are listed in Appendix A. The interview questions were evaluated by CSU, Stanislaus personnel not related to this study with a checklist of questions suggested by Gloria Rogers (Appendix D). A pilot test of the survey was administered to selected educators at CSU, Stanislaus to provide feedback on whether the survey‘s wording and clarity were apparent to all respondents and whether the questions meant the same thing to all respondents. Their responses were not included in the analysis but were used to shape the survey tool.
Data Analysis
Quantitative method. According to Vogt (2007), a purposive sample is
gathered deliberately with a reason in mind. Purposive sampling aims to select groups that display variation on the phenomena under investigation. The quantitative
component sample for this study was comprised of a 5-item Likert-scale survey as well as open-ended questions. Frequencies were conducted to determine how often IMC departments strategize the use of key messages being sent through the social media networks. The survey led to a variety of data-collection opportunities and other statistical analyses.
Qualitative method. Marshall and Rossman (2006) defined data analysis as
―the process of bringing order, structure, and interpretation to the mass of collected data‖ (p. 154). They identified seven phases that typically define qualitative analytic procedures: (a) organizing the data, (b) immersion in the data, (c) generating
categories and themes, (d) coding the data, (e) offering interpretations through analytic memos, (f) searching for alternative explanations, and (g) writing the report (p. 156). The web-based educational software, Dedoose, was utilized to determine significant differences and relationships among variables. Qualified faculty provided guidance on instructions in using Dedoose. The interviews were transcribed and reduced into clusters of themes and analyzed.
Standard methods of qualitative research to determine codings, categories, and themes that appeared across interviews are presented. To analyze the data, the researcher used Dedoose and the line-by-line coding procedures described by
Charmaz, (2000). Action codes were generated, reviewed, and modified by utilizing the constant comparative methodology described by Charmaz (2000) for comparing different participant‘s views, situations, actions, accounts, and experiences. The software was utilized to assist the researcher in managing the large number of data- related documents of this research to address Research Question 3.
Because the study was a sequential examination of both qualitative and quantitative research, the qualitative component (interviewing the marketing
personnel) helped develop the quantitative component (the questions for the surveys administered to the 23 CSU campuses). Both the qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed to further explain how social media is used in higher education.
To create a reliable coding system and clean the data analysis techniques, intercoder and interrater reliability were measured using Cohen‘s kappa statistics. When using content analysis it is best to use intercoder reliability when applying codes to the text. The quality of recording and documenting data becomes a central basis for assessing reliability and that of succeeding interpretations (Flick, 2006). Identifying the same codes or themes within the qualitative research, it is important to use interrater reliability.
Therefore, to establish the reliability and trustworthiness of the coding process for this study, the researcher took the following steps. First, the researcher identified two individuals who were knowledgeable of internet social media marketing
techniques but were not part of the study. Second, with the help of two research assistants, the researcher coded two or three interviews separately. Third, comparing
the codes and themes that each person identified and came to an agreement on appropriate codes and themes was conducted. Fourth, each person shared his or her rationale for the codes and themes they chose. In cases when the sample coding between each of the raters was less than 80 percent, the researcher reexamined the codes and themes that were used and defined new ones.
Ethical Obligation
Consistent with the Institutional Review Board (IRB) policy, the researcher provided all participants with an informed consent form for signature as seen in Appendix E. The form explained the purpose of the study, expected duration of participation, intended use of the data, benefits and risks of participation, and their right to confidentiality.
To further protect the subjects, a coding system was utilized to store and locate participants‘ information instead of personal names. The data were securely stored in both paper and electronic format by the researcher, and no one else had access to them except the college personnel guiding her with the research. The data were stored in a locked cabinet. Electronic data were stored in a password protected computer file. All the data will be destroyed after 1 year of study conclusion.
Guaranteeing the participants in the qualitative portion of this research complete anonymity and confidentiality was impractical because interviews were conducted with individuals who held specific positions within the university‘s organizational hierarchy. With the permission of the participants, each of the interviews was recorded with a digital voice recorder. The voice data files were then
transferred from the recording device to a laptop computer and a backup storage device. These files remained in the researcher‘s possession throughout the research process. The transcripts were proofread by the researcher and stored in a computer and a backup storage device. The complete transcripts were then sent to the
interviewees electronically for member checking purposes. Through the member checking process, the interviewees had the opportunity to clarify points that they made during the interview sessions. Some interviewees provided written
clarifications.
All publications, public distribution, or presentations of the findings from this study including but not limited to the researcher‘s dissertation maintained the
anonymity of all of the participating students, faculty, administrators, and other individuals involved in this study. In addition, the identies of the three institutions being interviewed as well as the institutions surveyed will also be protected. A pseudonym will be assigned as the name of the three institutions used and to anyone who is mentioned in the study. All research protocols involving human subjects will be reviewed and approved by the CSU Stanislaus University Institutional Review Board to assure compliance with all University regulations and applicable laws before any data collection will occur for this research project.
Trustworthiness
As an assessment of the content validity the researcher was administering the survey to CSU, Stanislaus personnel not related to this study to provide feedback. The researcher used a checklist of questions suggested by Gloria Rogers as listed in
Appendix D. According to Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2006), pretesting the questionnaire provides information about deficiencies and suggestions for
improvement. They suggest having three to four individuals read the cover letter and complete the questionnaire to identify problems (2006).
Flick (2006) suggests that trustworthiness and credibility as a criteria for qualitative research. The researcher maintained trustworthiness in the qualitative research by recording the interviews and saving all email communication documents. Other activities suggested by Flick to increase the likelihood of credible results are ―persistent observation‖ and ―prolonged engagement‖ (p. 376). Flick also suggested peer debriefing, which involves having regular meetings with other people who are not part of the research ―to disclose one‘s own blind spot‖ (p. 376).
Summary
This three-part sequential mixed-method study was designed to examine social media marketing efforts in higher education. This research addressed the following research questions.
1. How is social media used by the IMC department at each higher education institution and how has it changed the IMC profession in higher
education?
2. How are the IMC departments in the CSU campuses using social media to shape the university brand and other communication functions?
3. Are the higher education institutions using a procedures guideline for social media?
The first research question was explored using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Marketing individuals were purposefully selected for the interviews so that the study included different types of higher education institutions. Marketing content was also reviewed. After the interviews, the researcher gathered the responses from the interviews, used those responses to shape the survey questions, and sent the surveys to the 23 CSU campuses. The second research question was also addressed using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The third research question was examined with a content analysis of social media messages and guidelines that the institutions had developed for social media marketing. After the data were reviewed, the researcher merged the qualitative and quantitative data for further discussion and a summary of conclusions.
54 CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The purpose of this research study was to examine internet social media marketing in higher education. The literature shows that there is a need to integrate social media in all marketing efforts as a means of survival in today‘s Internet lifestyle (Weinberg, 2010). It is clear that traditional marketing tactics are not as effective as they once were because consumers trust in these media forms has declined (Weinberg, 2010). Today, information about any higher education institution is more accessible online and is effortless to find. With budgets cuts occurring across the country in the higher education systems, institutions must be in the ―survival of the fittest‖ mode to compete with one another.
This chapter describes the demographics, data-collection preparation, and an analysis of the data collection. This chapter also presents the findings from
interviews conducted with marketing directors from three different higher education institutions, surveys that were administered to public-relations directors in the CSU system, and review of social media guidelines from various CSU campuses. This study sought to answer the following research questions.
1. How is social media used by the IMC department at each higher education institution and how has it changed the PR profession in higher education? 2. How are the IMC departments in the CSU campuses using social media to
3. Are the higher education institutions using a procedures guideline for social media?
Selection of Participants
The research design for this study was a three-part, sequential mixed-methods design, an approach increasingly used in social-science research. To understand the research problems, both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of this study were merged at the end for an overall interpretation of the results. The data collection process was as follows (see Figure 2 for a visual representation).
1. The qualitative phase of the study consisted of interviewing the marketing directors from a community college, a public university, and a private university from the same California region. This phase was intended to develop a broad understanding of how social media is used in higher education by marketing professionals. This qualitative research extracted rich and thick descriptive data from the three individuals involved in the interview process.
2. After analyzing and reducing the interview data in to themes, survey research was used to collect and inventory information about institutions‘ social media marketing efforts. The data from the interviews helped shape and guide the development of the survey questions. To obtain an
overview of how universities use social media networks, surveys were sent to public-relations managers at all of the 23 CSU campuses.
3. After interviews and surveys were completed, the researcher reviewed social media guidelines from six CSU campuses that were made available by the marketing directors.
The data from all three phases were merged to explore social media as a new marketing tool that is fast growing and often a chaotic phenomenon facing higher education IMC departments. To further explore the research questions, the
theoretical framework was used as a guide to inform the exploration of the research questions (Creswell, 2004).
To further explore the research questions, the theoretical framework was used as a guide to inform the exploration of the research questions (Creswell, 2004). Figure 5 illustrates how each segment of the social media framework integrates the use of social media through the higher education IMC departments.
Figure 5. Internet social-media-network functions of uses by public relations personnel in higher education institutions.
Descriptive Characteristics
The CSU system started as individual California State Colleges were brought together as a system by the Donahoe Higher Education Act of 1960. In 1972 the system became The CSU and Colleges and in 1982 the system became The CSU (About CSU, 2011). Today the campuses of the CSU include comprehensive and polytechnic universities and, since July 1995, the California Maritime Academy, a specialized campus (About CSU, 2011). Today there are 23 campuses across California.
California‘s Central Valley consists of a private university; four community colleges; a University of California campus and a CSU campus. The first phase of this study consisted of interviewing the media relations director from University of the Pacific (Pacific), which is a private university in Stockton with a student
population of 6,251. The assistant vice president of communication and public affairs is from CSU Stanislaus campus in Turlock with over 8,300 students enrolled in Fall 2010. The public information officer from Modesto Junior College (MJC) was also interviewed. MJC, according the Yosemite Community College District fact sheet, MJC had over 19,500 students enrolled during the fall of 2010.
Data Collection
The data collection and analysis presented in this chapter begin with a brief overview of the research population and broad demographics of the research sample. Next, the data collection procedures used is discussed. Each research question is
introduced and followed by the presented data (see Figure 4 for a visual representation of the data collection sequence and procedure).
Interviews. Consistent with the Institutional Review Board (IRB) policy, the
researcher provided all interview participants with an informed consent form for signature (see Appendix E). The form explained the purpose of the study, expected duration of participation, intended use of the data, benefits and risks of participation, and participants right to confidentiality.
As an assessment of the content validity the researcher administered a pilot test of the interview questions to CSU, Stanislaus personnel not involved in this study in order to provide feedback. The researcher used a checklist of questions suggested by Gloria Rogers as listed in Appendix B. As a result of the pilot testing and
feedback, selected interview questions were adjusted and rewritten.
The first step in conducting the interviews was emailing the three marketing directors to schedule a time to meet or to conduct a phone interview. The researcher also included the consent letter for them to sign and fax or email back as well as information regarding the interview topic in the email. The first person to respond was Kristen Olsen from CSU Stanislaus, Assistant Vice President for