Intrinsic integration

It is not enough to call something a game and attach conventional game elements in order to derive the benefits associated with games. Dressing a training intervention up by adding cartoon graphics, introducing a reward points system, having fun games interleaved between the learning content are all examples of introducing gaming elements but failing to embed the learning content in the game. The term 'chocolate covered broccoli' is sometimes used to refer to the practice of superficially disguising dull learning or training with appealing game elements. This subterfuge will be readily apparent to trainees after a short period. Habgood & Ainsworth (2011) discuss in detail the importance of intrinsically integrating game goals with content to be trained, an approach they refer to as “intrinsic integration”. To

implement intrinsic integration the skills or functions being targeted should comprise the core mechanics of the game (Kafai, 2001). The core mechanics are the

mechanisms by which the trainee engages with the world to achieve the game objectives (Habgood & Overmars, 2006). This relates to the removal of extraneous load and ensuring that the intrinsic load of the task specifically relates to the intended target of training. Once the intended target of the training comprises the core mechanics of the game, a flow experience can be encouraged by overtly tying the key components of the flow experience as defined by Csikszentmihalyi - clear goals, achievable challenges, and accurate feedback - to the core mechanics. The use of visual representation of the core mechanics will help communicate clear goals.

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The core mechanics are what should be manipulated to ensure game challenges are achievable. And the feedback should reflect the trainee’s adherence to the rules governing the core mechanic. Habgood’s two recommendations for enhancing the intrinsic integration of learning content are:

1. “Deliver learning material through the parts of the game that are the most fun to play, riding on the back of the flow experience produced by the game, and not interrupting or diminishing its impact.”

2. “Embody the learning material within the structure of the gaming world and the player’s interactions with it, providing an external representation of the learning content that is explored through the core mechanics of the game play.” (Habgood, Ainsworth, & Benford, 2005).

The principle of “intrinsic integration” was central to the game's development. It is particularly relevant to those with ADHD given the importance of maximising their motivation. This entailed integrating the game goal with the content to be learned. If we want the participants to learn to control their direction of eye-gaze then success in the game, the behaviour we reward with points or provide feedback about, should be gaze control. While this sounds obvious it is often not implemented in training games. It can be challenging to make the content that we want people to learn into a believable game that is enjoyable. Further, evaluating whether the game has succeeded in linking game success with the proposed target of training will never be straight forward. Success will instead always be partial, and will be achieved to a greater or lesser degree, and the degree of this success can only be inferred. A multitude of minute decisions will impact on this success. Subtle difference in the programming can have unforeseen consequences.

Of primary importance is to firstly ensure that the game mechanics reflect the aspect of the system targeted, and secondly, that success in the game (game points,

awards, and progression to new levels) map onto the game mechanics. The successful implementation of intrinsic integration principles will deliver maximum learning for time spent playing the game, but additionally it is shown to motivate people to spend a greater amount of time playing the game.

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6.4 Exercise

One of the difficult aspects of training the cognitive system is that the effects must be inferred, the results of the training are not readily observable. Physical exercise and the best practice for improving physical strength, endurance, and resolving muscular imbalance have been extensively studied. The effects of training the physical system can be readily observed and validate the principles of training derived. The biological constrains that govern the principles of good physical training may also have some relevance for training the cognitive system. Examining the principles of how to increase capacity in the physical system may provide some useful guidance on increasing the capacity of the cognitive functions we are

attempting to train. Caution is however needed in the application of such principle to the cognitive system.

There are some general principles of exercise that are common sense, e.g. it is important to ensure adequate sleep and to eat properly in order to operate at peak capacity during training, and this is similarly applicable for cognitive training. The U.S. Army Fitness Training Handbook proposes seven principles for increasing the capacity of the physical system through physical exercise, namely progression, regularity, overload, variety, recovery, balance and specificity. These are summarised in table 1.

The utilisation of principles similar to these is apparent and obvious in many forms of training, e.g. motivation is aided by introducing some variety and there is a need to gradually increase intensity and/or duration, but these principles do help to

underscore some important features when delivering a training intervention. There is a need to find a balance between regularity and recovery to optimise training

results. If the break given between training sessions is too long gains may be harder to achieve. A recovery period is needed after exercise for muscle damage repair and the metabolizing of waste; it is likely there are analogous processes related to brain plasticity. The need for overloading the system, exceeding the normal demands, may have relevance for cognitive training. The principle of progression can be related to the concept of schema formation and development and a resultant need to increase the intrinsic load of a task. Balance is less relevant in this instance as we are

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targeting a specific problem area as opposed to conditioning the whole system, but it may be important to train the target function with multiple tasks as well as training related and supporting functions, this further ties into the principle of variety. Finally, Paas & Gog, (2009) emphasise on sustainability being a solution to the problem of reversibility. They suggest that the way to protect against the loss of gains made when training has stopped is to ensure the enhanced function is integrated into everyday behaviour. Within physical exercise “maintenance programs” or “reduced programs” are used to maintain gains, however, in this instance the goal is to strengthen a weakened system and as such it is hoped that once strengthened this system can be integrated into everyday functioning, though this may require a training intervention aimed at integrating newly acquired functions into existing patterns of behaviour (as a side note, it may be that the poor levels of transfer observed in the literature reflect this need to integrate newly acquired functions into existing patterns of behaviour).

Table 1 Seven principles for increasing physical fitness taken from the U.S. Army Fitness Training Handbook

Principle Description

Progression To improve your level of fitness you need to gradually increase both the intensity and duration.

Regularity It is also important to maintain an exercise regimen that is consistent with exercise taking place at regular intervals.

Overloading Exercise sessions should exceed the normal demands you place on your body.

Variety It is important to add variety by including different activities, not only to prevent boredom also to increase motivation.

Recovery The rest periods between training are just as important as the training itself, the optimum recovery time is between 24 and 48 hours.

Balance It is important to exercise all areas of the body equally to achieve a balanced level of fitness.

Reversibility Your muscles will atrophy and the cellular adaptations will reverse if you discontinue training.

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Some of the intervention design principles identified in this chapter are:

 Implement intrinsic motivation

 Target multiple aspects of inhibitory control with a number of tasks

 Vary task difficulty below the trainee’s maximum capacity

 Use performance tracking algorithms to assess their current capacity and adjust task-difficulty appropriately

 Task difficulty should be increased by increasing intrinsic load

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