Chapter 1: General Introduction 1
3.1 Introduction 75
Jones and colleagues (1994) stipulate that while all organisms are ecosystem engi‐
neers to some extent, organisms are more likely to be important engineers in an eco‐
system if: (1) they spend a large amount of time engaging in the engineering activity,
(2) they have a high population density, (3) they are widely distributed, (4) they live
in colonized areas over long periods of time, (5) their constructs are durable, and (6)
the number of resource flows that their activity modulates and the number of other
species these resource flows affect is high. Corophium volutator (Pallas) are ubiqui‐
tous and extremely abundant in North Atlantic estuarine mudflats. Although their
distributions within the estuaries are patchy, they have a wide tolerance of salinity,
grain size, and nutrient levels (Meadows & Reid 1966; Meadows 1967; McLusky
1968) and so can live in most areas of the estuary, and their numbers may vary be‐
tween 1,000 and 20,000 individuals m
‐2but maximum abundances of 100,000 indi‐
viduals m
‐2have been reported (McLusky 1968; Henriksen et al 1980; Murdoch et al
1986; Raffaelli & Milne 1987; Gerdol & Hughes 1994b; de Deckere 2000; Møller & Ri‐
isgård 2006). Although abundances fluctuate widely throughout the year (references
as previous) they can be usually be found in the same general area throughout the
year unless driven away by macroalgal mats (Raffaelli 2000) or by competition from
Arenicola marina (Beukema & Flach 1995). C. volutator build U‐shaped burrows to
Meadows et al Hussain 1990). Their burrows are considered to be semi‐permanent
because abandoned burrows remain intact and are often re‐inhabited by other indi‐
viduals (Meadows & Reid 1966). They maintain a steady current through their bur‐
rows by beating their pleopods rhythmically, which is necessary for respiration as
well as feeding (as discussed in Chapter 1.4.3.1) and also acts to shunts faecal pellets
and grazed sediment out of the burrow, into the overlying water column. This bur‐
rowing and irrigating activity begins as soon as the hatchlings leave the parental bur‐
row and is maintained more or less continuously throughout the animals’ life (Ger‐
dol & Hughes 1994a; Møller & Riisgård, 2006). C. volutator shows functional plastic‐
ity and can both filter and deposit feeders. They deposit feed by scraping off surface
biofilm from around their burrows and then digesting the diatoms, bacteria and EPS.
In this manner, C. volutator can be voracious deposit feeders – Gerdol and Hughes
(1994a) estimated that an adult would consume an average of 4000 diatoms an hour
and showed that within a month would completely destroy the MPB biofilm in the
area they inhabited (1994b). When suspension feeding, they can equally efficiently
clear the water column of diatoms – Forster‐Smith estimated a pumping rate for a
single adult of 63 ± 36 ml h
‐1and Møller and Riisgård (Møller and Riisgård 2006 and
references therein) demonstrated that, at in situ population densities (3,100 – 20,000
ind m
‐2) a sublittoral C. volutator population in a shallow fjord would pump between
0.9 – 19.4 m
3m
‐2d
‐1of overlying water through their burrows resulting in phyto‐
plankton half‐lives of 14.5 – 0.7 hours in the water column (Møller and Riisgård
2006).
Apart from their importance in the estuarine food chain, the feeding and burrow ir‐
rigating of C. volutator results in a number of important resource‐modifying ecosys‐
tem functions. Firstly, one the effect of C. volutator deposit‐feeding is a loss of
and lamination and increased erodibility of the sediment, and (2) the dissolution and
recycling of nutrients, and (3) decreasing the organic content of the sediment. Sec‐
ondly, the effect of C. volutator burrowing and maintaining the irrigation current also
has several knock on effects: (4) the resuspension of sediment into the overlying wa‐
ter column, (5) the release of nutrients from the sediment, (6) the extension of the
sediment‐water boundary, and (7) increased sediment porosity and water content.
The first resource pathway that C. volutator modifies, according to Gerdol & Hughes
(1994b), is the prevention of sediment accretion and lamination due to the loss of
biofilm resulting a loss of elevated stable sediment bases for plant colonisation pre‐
venting sea grasses and salt marsh plants from taking root and then encouraging
further sediment accretion. In addition to lowering of the critical erosion threshold
of the sediment (Paterson 1989; Gerdol & Hughes 1994b; Daborn 1993; de Deckere et
al 2000), C. volutator actively flings sediment and faecal pellets into the water column
through their burrow irrigation at immersion, thereby increasing sediment load in
the overlying water (de Deckere et al 2000; Biles et al 2002). This increases the turbid‐
ity at immersion potentially decreases the sunlight received by MPB, phytoplankton,
and macroalgae by reducing light transmission and further reducing organic carbon
production. The third resource that C. volutator modifies (actually multiple re‐
sources) is inorganic nutrients, in particular inorganic nitrogen (NH
4+, NO
3‐, NO
2‐),
phosphates, and dissolved silicates. By digesting biofilms, C. volutator facilitates the
regeneration of dissolved nutrients in the porewater (Henriksen et al 1980; Henriksen
et al 1983; Gerdol & Hughes 1994a; Roubeix et al, 2008). Burrow irrigation not only
releases these nutrients from the porewater into the surface or overlying water (Hen‐
riksen et al 1980; Henriksen et al 1983; Biles et al 2002; Emmerson et al 2001; Bulling et
al 2010), but also extends the sediment‐water boundary interface, which releases
creases nitrification and denitrication (Pelegri & Blackburn 1994; Pelegri et al 1994;
Mermillod‐Blondin et al 2004). Finally, the consumption of organic carbon by macro‐
fauna means less availability for burial and which can mean less sulphate reduction
to H
2S by sulphate reducing bacteria (Mermillod‐Blondin et al 2004).
Because C. volutator grazing has a detrimental effect on local MPB, they may, in time,
reduce the availability of food resources, changing their locality into an unsuitable
habitat for subsequent generations, which will potentially have to find other pas‐
tures. While C. volutator locally reduces total MPB biomass, they can potentially in‐
crease the assemblage diversity by preferentially grazing on dominant, mid‐sized,
free‐living motile cells like Navicula over very large (> 200 μm length), heavily silici‐
fied, or epipsammic cells (Smith et al 1996; Hagerthey et al 2002). In addition, biotur‐
bation could be interpreted as a source of intermediate disturbance, which could in‐
crease niche availability and thereby increase species diversity (Townsend et al 2000),
although there is no empirical evidence for this theory in MPB communities. Theo‐
retically, C. volutator’s multiple potential effects on the water column could have both
beneficial and detrimental effects on MPB biomass and diversity, and this study aims
to examine the net effect. The net effect of CV activity on MPB will be determined by
which of the physicochemical properties of the overlying water column is changed
most drastically and exerts the greatest selective pressure on MPB assemblages. For
example, assemblages from a eutrophic estuary may not necessarily respond to in‐
creased nutrient availability in the overlying water column, but may respond drasti‐
cally to changes in light level, or increased sedimentation and the opposite could be
true for assemblages in an oligotrophic estuary.
One effect on MPB biomass and assemblage composition could be that diatoms re‐
settle out of the water column. Another potential effect is that increased availability
of nitrates and phosphate, adsorbed on the surface of sediment particles, might com‐
pensate for the loss of light, a phenomenon previously described in freshwater sys‐
tems and shown to benefit smaller, epipsammic species of diatoms that inhabit the
understory of benthic biofilms (Burkholder 1996). The other source of nutrients are
the increased dissolved nutrients fluxes to the overlying water column due to biotur‐
bation and bioirrigation, which are likely to increase MPB biomass, but the effect on
assemblage composition appears to be particular to the specific system. Hagerthey
and colleagues (2002) found that estuarine MPB populations maintained ex situ in
tidal systems with high nutrients had a higher biomass than those with low nutrients
regardless of whether they originated from eutrophic or oligotrophic estuary. How‐
ever,
the
effect
of
nutrients
on
assemblage
structure
varied
depending on the
whether the assemblages had come from eutrophic or oligotrophic assemblages:
species richness, evenness and diversity of assemblages from eutrophic assemblages
were higher in the low nutrient treatment than the high nutrient treatment, whereas
the reverse was true for assemblages from oligotrophic estuaries. Agatz and col‐
leagues (1999) found that along a nutrient gradient from a sewage outflow on a
North Sea sandflat, MPB biomass increased with increasing nutrients, but diversity
maximized at intermediate nutrient concentrations and that smaller epipsammic dia‐
toms dominated oligotrophic areas and non‐local and large, motile, local diatoms
dominated eutrophic areas. On the other hand, working on phosphate‐limited
freshwater chemostats, Grover (1989) predicted and found that larger elongate dia‐
toms (almost all MPB diatoms are elongate or ‘pennate’ rather than centric) were
more competitive than smaller ones and so should dominate assemblages that are
nutrient limited. Finally, C. volutator turbidity generation can remotely affect MPB
should decrease overall biomass and favour motile diatoms, which can migrate fast‐
est to the sediment surface. However, Defew and colleagues (2002) found that re‐
moving diatoms from the field into the laboratory as well as applying different shad‐
ing levels to them once in the laboratory (> 1000, and 164 and 77 μmol m
‐2s
‐1in field
and laboratory, respectively) had no effect on chlorophyll a content of the sediment
between initial and final values (2 weeks) for either treatments, or on surface biomass
(F
0) between treatments. In terms of assemblage structure, Defew and colleagues
(2002) found no change in species richness, but a decrease in diversity due to a shift
to smaller sized diatoms following 2 weeks of incubation in the laboratory. They
surmised that smaller cell sizes were more competitive in situations of lower light
and nutrient availability. In a follow‐up experiment, Defew and colleagues (2004)
found that the effect of light intensity on MPB biomass was temperature dependent
and at 18 °C rather than 10 °C, biomass (chlorophyll a and F
0) did increase with light
intensity but species richness, evenness, and diversity were higher after three weeks
under shaded, rather than unshaded, light conditions (70 and 350 μmol m
‐2s
‐1) at
both temperatures. The lowest diversity was exhibited by unshaded treatments at
18°C and cyanobacteria became more plentiful in the assemblage under stressful
conditions (temperature > 25 °C, low nutrients, and low light).
By allowing a C. volutator modified water column to circulate over both grazed and
ungrazed sediment, it should be possible to distinguish a pure engineering effect
from the combined trophic and engineering effect on MPB biomass and assemblage
structure and to determine whether effects are amplified by increasing C. volutator
biomass. The combined trophic and engineering effect would be observed in the
grazed sediment and the ‘remote’ effect, via the engineered water column, would be
observed in the ungrazed sediment. More specifically, this experiment was designed
H
02.1: C. volutator has no significant effect on the water column at any biomass.
H
02.2: C. volutator has no significant effect on MPB biomass, locally or remotely.
H
02.3: C. volutator has no significant effect on MPB assemblage composition, locally
or remotely.
In document
Microphytobenthic diversity and function in estuarine soft sediment
(Page 95-101)