Isolation vs Integration and Comprehension

2.2 Fragmentation vs Holism

Combinations of these ideologies often appear in teaching practice. The merging of isolated and fragmented approaches, on the one hand, and comprehensive and holistic approaches, on the other hand, most often appear. Other combinations are also possible but do not occur frequently in the educational process.

2.1

Isolation vs Integration and Comprehension

In the isolated approach Aural Training is dealt with in separate classes, isolated from other subjects. The nature of this isolation can be twofold, either treating Aural Training as a "lone" subject in which the main focus is placed on repeated drill exercises, or as a separate subject in which cross-references are made to other subjects. The latter form represents a combined isolated, comprehensive approach which is in its nature not isolated from other subjects, but is simply a product of curriculum planning. When reference is made to the isolated approach, this second form is not meant.

Another manifestation of the "lone ranger syndrome" can be seen in classes where the instruction time is divided _ between different subjects, e.g. Aural Training and MusiCTheory, or Aural Training in the instrumental lesson, with each subject treated as an autonomous domain. An example of this approach can be seen in the timpani instruction

76

77

Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 p. 15.

Rita Aiello, J.S. Tanaka and Wayne C. Winborne, "Listening to Mozart: Perceptual differences among musicians" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) p. 289.

program that was developed by Michael Gill.78 A computer-assisted self-instruction course aimed at helping the stu- -dent with the aural recognition of intervals formed part of his program. Gill excluded rhythmical training which forms the heart of percussion playing, concentrating merely on the pitch parameter in order to enable the tuning of the timpani.

Apart from the majority of Aural Training workbooks in which isolated exercises are presented with no reference to other music subjects, further examples of the isolated approach can be seen in the Aural Training syllabi of the University of South Africa, The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (United Kingdom) and Trinity College of Music (United Kingdom).79 Since about the 1980s there has been a general move back to separated Aural Training classes in the United States of America, possibly as a result of the competency-based learning philosophy of the 1970s, in which 'back-to-basics' played an important role.80 This separation often results in fragmentation.

"The community of musicians has never before been confronted with the level of fragmentation that exists today. Analytic method is divorced from musical reflex, composers from performers, and conventional repertoire from new repertoire. In this century these polarities have developed because of the momentum of compartmentalization - a trend that has played an important role in many aspects of culture, education, and technology. Countertrends in specific areas of human endeavor and in the work of extraordinary, multi- faceted people have asserted themselves sporadically, but not with the same, sustained persistence as the

overriding tendency toward specialization. "81 .

It is conspicuous that almost no reference is made in the Aural Training literature to justify the isolated teaching approach. Authors who applied this approach in their workbooks did not comment on the its validity. Reference is most frequently made in the form of criticism. BrUhl, who criticised the fact that the contents of many textbooks were based upon an isolated approach with the main emphasis on intervals, chords, and major and minor tonality, is only one example among many.82 A further criticism, namely a possible negative outcome of an isolated approach to Aural Training, was described by Rupert Thackray:

78

79

80

81

82

Michael James Gill, ZykIus: A Performer's Analysis; A Video Taped Timpani Method utilizing Computer

assisted Instruction for Ear Training. Doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern Mississippi 1988.

Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988 p. 88.

University of South Africa, Practical Musicianship (Aural Tests) Appendix B, Written Examination Syl-

labuses. Pretoria: UNISA, 1985.

The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music, Aural Tests Parts I-IV. London: ARSM, 1972. Trinity College of Music, Sample Ear Tests. London: Trinity College of Music, [n.d.].

Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Ed- wardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 p. 19.

Michael L. Friedmann, Ear Training for Twentieth Century Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990 p. xvii.

Karl W. BrUhl, Materialien zur Didaktik und Methodik des Musikunterrichts Band 6: Materialien zur

"Sometimes pupils are rushed through a 'crash' course to prepare them for the aural tests involved in an examination and the fact that pupils with serious aural weaknesses can often manage to pass examinations

regardless does not encourage teachers to devote much time and energy to this aspect of their work."83

According to Thackray one of the reasons why Aural Training is often treated as a separate subject, is that insuffi- cient provision is made for aural exposure in the overall study of music. He critisised theory and harmony lessons where not a note is played, History of Music classes where book knowledge dominates, and Analysis classes which merely involve "eye-work".

Rogers was the only author found who reflected on the arguments of the proponents of a separated approach. One of their main arguments is that intellectual comprehension and hearing abilities develop at different rates. As a rule, the ear develops slower than the eye an~ mind. Because of this a combination of written and aural work can sometimes in the ~tegrated approach inflict an unnaturally slow pacing on written topics. For maximum pedagogical effectiveness, taking into account practical teaching reasons and the inherently different nature of skills, they must each be adapted for the individual courses. According to this argument the evaluation of separated courses permits a clearer and stricter monitoring of standards.

The counterpart of the isolated approach is the integrated, comprehensive approach which, according to Rogers, became popular during the 1950s in the United States of America. This approach was meant to correct.the splitting of theory programs into numerous different classes (e.g. Part-Writing, Dictation, Sight singing) which were often taught by separate instructors with little use of common analytical principles. The integrated, comprehensive approach guards against merely producing technically-orientated 'pencil-and-paper' musicians, which often is the result of an

isolated approach.84

The words integrated and comprehensive indicate that there are two manifestations of this unsegregated teaching

ideology. There is, however, only a marginal difference between them. Integration points to the fact that all music subjects should be taught from an auditive point of view. Aural work is also underlined in the comprehensive approach with the main emphasis, however, on the central nature of the subject in which all subjects are combined in an interrelated manner.

In the integrated approach Aural Training is incorporated into all other subjects such as Music History, Music Theory, Analysis, Instrumental classes, etc. Giildenstein presented examples of the integration of Aural Training into other subjects. In the Analysis classes students can, for example, sing motives, fugue themes and tonal or real

answers.85 Arnold Moller integrated the teaching of elementary Music Theory principles with accompanying aural

83

84

85

Rupert Thackray, "Some Thoughts on Aural Training" in The Australian Journal of Music Education,

October 1975 p. 25.

Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 pp. 16-17.

exercises, e.g. the theoretical knowledge of a chromatic scale is directly followed by singing the scale.86 The fact that most Music Theory books emphasised intellectual knowledge at the cost of sound experiences was strongly criticised by Paul Schenk. He stressed the fact that Aural Training and Music Theory should form a unity in which the same pedagogical themes should be treated alongside each other.87

Several authors recommended the integration of Aural Training into instrumental classes. The main reason for this is that many teachers primarily pay attention to the technical skills of instrumental performers. According to Stanley Schleuter, the aim should rather be "to develop students who have something to perform rather than students who just perform something. "88

At the 1976 D-A-CH Conference in Regensburg, Neumann, Resch, Wolters and Zehetmair read lectures on the theme of integration.89 Hans-Dieter Resch urgently called upon all private instrumental music teachers, as well as music teachers in public schools, to integrate systematic Aural Training into instruction from the very first lesson. Referring to instrumental teaching, he soothed general fears that such an integrated approach can interfere with a rapid progress in playing abilities. On the contrary, Resch pointed to the fact that the student will benefit from the gain in general musicianship, which includes the ability to recognise patterns swiftly. Through the constant develop- ment of aural knowledge of intervals, chords, tonal and atonal relationships, musical memory can be developed in a relaxed, systematic way.

Bernita Douglas developed a model for integrating Aural Training into piano lessons. According to her, Aural Training should form part of the whole piano lesson using the pieces that the pupil is playing as instruction material. Through this approach the pupil has the opportunity to develop his musicianship while working with musical entities within a musical context. The end effect will be a pianist who is able to rise above the level of mere technical performance.90 86 87 88 89 90

Arnold Moller, Elementare Musiktheorie und GehOrbiidung mit Aufgaben fiir den Selbstunterricht. Frankfurt: Zimmermann, 1985.

Paul Schenk, Schule der musikalischen Gehorbildung - I. Teil: Gehorbildung Unterstufe und Musikkunde. (Eight booklets). Trossingen: Hohner, 1952, preface.

This methodological approach is an example of an integrated fragmented approach to Aural Training.

Stanley L. Schleuter, A Sound Approach to Teaching Instrumentalists - An Application of Content and Learning Sequences. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1984 p. xii.

Annemarie Neumann, "Musiktheorie und GehOrbildung unter instrumentimmanenten Aspekten" (pp. 101-104). Hans-Dieter Resch, "Gedanken fiber eine systematische GehOrbildung im Instrumentalunterricht" (pp. 83-85). Klaus Wolters, "GehOrschulung im Klavierunterricht" (pp. 105-107).

Helmut Zehetmair, "Spezielle Aufgaben einer GehOrbildung im Violinunterricht" (pp. 91-94).

All in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6:Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungstatten fiir Musikberufe - Dokumentation iiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976.

Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978.

Bernita Douglas, Riglyne vir geintegreerde gehooropleiding by klavieronderrig. Unpublished Master's the- sis, University of Stellenbosch 1990.

Basically the same teaching ideology was portrayed by Schleuter who applied content and learning sequences to instrumental teaching. The goal of his book is to teach tonal and rhythmic understanding while developing instrumental technique. One of the main principles in his approach is that sound should be emphasised before symbols, and he recommended the singing of tunes before they are played, as well as the playing of familiar tunes without notation, "by ear". Rhythm readiness should be developed by means of kinesthetic response by moving to music (dancing and free movements). An example of a first lesson on a woodwind instrument is used to demonstrate how students can familiarise themselves with the tonal patterns doh re miand mi re doh. The students should be able to sing these patterns, using tonal syllables before continuing with the next step. Other steps involve learning the correct fingering used through observation, using the two patterns to play familiar songs ("Mary had a little lamb" and "Hot cross buns") by ear, and transposing the songs to other keys. According to Stanley the advantages of this approach are numerous. Not only are musical sound and tone quality always emphasised first, but learning new fingerings and technical development are assisted with a small vocabulary of tonal patterns. Technique thus results from musical activity .91

The comprehensive approach refers to a tertiary curricular arrangement that attempts to combine and interrelate subjects such as Music Literature, Harmony, Counterpoint, Formal Analysis and Aural Training within a single unified semester course, called Comprehensive Musicianship. The rationale behind this philosophy is to connect elements and ideas from the various music disciplines, in order to teach students to understand music as a unified whole rather than as detached fragments.92

General specific traits of Comprehensive Musicianship (CM) are as follows: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (t) 91 92 93

All style periods are treated as being equally important.

Real compositions in a variety of textures and mediums, as opposed to artificial exercises in four-part chorale style, form the core of study.

Parametric analysis - both written and aural - is prominently featured.

Composition and/or improvisation projects, not just mechanical drills, are stressed.

Rehearsing and performing of student compositions or other compositions in class are part of many CM programmes. Just as swimming cannot be learned from a book, real music learning rarely takes place without this live contact. .

All activities and components are related to one another and lead to a unified and complete understanding. The ultimate goal is to rectify the compartmentalization of music instruction by incorporating holistic learning.93

Stanley L. Schleuter, A Sound Approach to Teaching Instrumentalists - An Application of Content and Learning Sequences. Ohio, Kent: The Kent State University Press, 1984.

Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 pp. 16 and 20.

Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 pp. 20-21.

Although the appearance of the subject Comprehensive Musicianship on a tertiary level is a North American phenomenon, subjects with the same traits can be found in German tertiary music education.94 The following are examples of such courses:

Hochschule der Kilnste Berlin, Winter semester 1989/90: "Horanalyse notierter und nichtnotierter Musik" (Aural analysis of notated and unnotated music); "Form - Formenlehre - Horen" (Form - Form Analysis - Listening).

Hochschulefir Musik Detmold, Winter semester 1990/91: "AbhOrpraktikum: Das Streichquartett im 19. Jahrhun- dert" (Aurally based practical course: The string quartet in the nineteenth century).

Hochschule fir Musik und Theater Hannover, Winter semester 1990/91 and Summer semester 1991: "Horkolloquium: GroBbesetzte Vokalmusik" (Aural colloquy: Vocal music with a large setting).

Staatliche Hochschulefir Musik Freiburg im Breisgau, Summer semester 1991: "Einfiihrungskurs in die angewandte GehOrbildung mit orginal-instrumentierten Literaturbeispielen" (Introductory course in applied Aural Training with music literature examples in their original orchestration); "Stilkunde " (The Study of the Art of compositional style periods).

Staatliche Hochschule fir Musik Karlsruhe, Winter semester 1990/91: "Analytisches Horen; Satztechniken des Spat- barock und Ubergang zur Wiener Klassik mit Horiibungen" (Analytical listening: Formal techniques of the Late Baroque and the transition to the Viennese Classic with aural exercises).

Staatliche Hochschulefir Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgan, 1988-1992: "Horanalyse in Verbindung mit For- menlehre" (Aural Analysis in connection with Form Analysis classes); "Repetitorium der Musikgeschichte _ Anleitungen zum Erkennen und Bestimmen von Klangbeispielen aus dem Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart" (Revision course on Music History - Guidance for the recognition and determination of acoustical examples from the Middle Ages to the Present).

Rogers addressed certain problems that surround Comprehensive Musicianship Classes. A few of them are: the lack of appropriate textbooks, difficulty in calibrating grading factors, lack of suitable teachers with a broad enough back- ground of various subjects in order to explain relationships between details and their whole contexts, lack of time for in-depth study (the issue of breadth vs depth is raised).9S