Issues relating to teacher continuous assessment practice

Apart from implications already mentioned, there are other issues that directly concern teacher continuous assessment practice in relation to lower attaining pupils in Ghana. These include: assessment and diagnosis of SEN, diversity in general education classrooms, larger classes, and peripatetic service. The others are teacher education and professional development as well as teacher assessment competency.

2.6.1 Assessment for placement of children with SEN in Ghana

With respect to assessment for placement of children with SEN, Avoke (2002) suggests that little has been written about the procedure in Ghana. However, Boison (1999) provides some insights into what prevails in some settings in the country. According to Boison in one of the assessment centres, an assessment officer gathers information on the child, and sometimes, a second officer is called to assist when language/expression problem arises. Some of the children who need medical appraisal are referred to the various hospitals for further diagnosis and treatment.

Thomas, Walker and Webb (1998) suggest that one of the main differences between traditional and inclusive approaches to assessment of needs is that the traditional approach requires a child’s referral to be made by an expert. It is argued that the message inherent in this process is that mainstream teachers are not qualified or competent enough to provide education to a pupil with a significant learning problem. According to the authors, ‘expertism’ and ‘professionalism’ have abounded in special education; experts and professionals have in the past promoted the idea that only those with special qualifications are equipped to assess, teach and make decisions about children who are significantly different from others.

Although general education teachers and parents provide information and participate in making decisions concerning the education of children with SEN, it is vital that people with understanding of children’s needs made assessment and placement decisions. In Ghana, special education teachers and personnel from the assessment centres are usually consulted for their views concerning the placement of children with SEN (Avoke, Hayford, Ihenacho and Ocloo, 1998; Boison, 1999). Consultation with experts on lower attainments is not widespread in the country.

In term of assessment centres, a number of hearing assessment centres and eye clinics have been established in many communities in the country. All the main hospitals at the regional capitals have well equipped assessment facilities. Additionally, many of the schools for the deaf have audiology clinics for assessment of hearing and trained personnel to man them. It has become relatively easy to have children assessed for hearing problems. There is also significant improvement concerning the assessment and treatment of problems relating to vision.

However, there is problem in the area of assessment of learning difficulties. The only assessment centre for assessing conditions relating to learning difficulties is sited at the national capital, Accra. The centre is poorly equipped, lacks personnel and other resources. The following statement by the MoEYS (2004) sums up the situation:

Inadequate assessment facilities, the few assessment centres are urban-based and poorly equipped. Many school-aged children are not assessed prior to admission. This affects their placement, resourcing and future schooling (p. 15).

The trend is that, children with moderate to severe learning difficulties in other parts of the country are sent to the nearest psychiatric hospital for evaluation and diagnosis. These hospitals are few and sited at the urban centres as well. Children with mild conditions and no visible signs of impairment are not assessed; they enroll in basic schools and receive education as all other children. However, the education system does not make any special provision to enhance the participation of such pupils in mainstream classrooms.

2.6.2 Diversity in basic schools

There is evidence of diversity in mainstream classrooms in basic schools in Ghana. MoEYS (2004) reports that:

Educational programmes are available for the deaf, the blind and the mentally handicapped (learning difficulties) in both segregated and integrated settings from basic to the tertiary level. The physically disabled are educated in the mainstream and not in special schools (p. 14).

Apart from the Ministry’s report, in a 4-year (1996-2000) project involving regular schools in the Affutu district, in which teacher-trainees from the University of Education were attached to basic schools, Avoke and Hayford (2000) reported the presence of pupils with SEN across all the classes in the regular schools. The pupils had mild-moderate learning difficulties, physical impairments including head injuries

sustained from accidents, visual and hearing problems excluding blindness and deafness. With exception of learning difficulties all the other conditions had been medically certified. These reports did not include any information on lower attaining pupils.

2.6.3 Basic school enrolments

As argued previously (Section 2.2.2), there has been a continual increase in enrolment since the launch of the basic educational reforms in 1987. Records from the MoE (1996, 2000g) show that the gross primary school enrolment rate increased from 80.5% in 1988/89 to 82.5% in 1990/91. There is a gradual increase in enrolment rates annually for primary school and Junior Secondary School (MoE, 2000g). Whilst the improvement in enrolment rates is a positive development, the failure to match the growth in enrolment with provision of new school buildings has resulted in larger classes.

2.6.4 Larger classes

Larger classes have been of concern to many practitioners and researchers in education in Ghana. In their book, Principles and methods in special education, Avoke, Hayford and Ocloo (1999) noted that sharp increases in enrolment have led to overcrowding in both special and regular schools. Further, Tamakloe et al. (1996) cited by Asamoah-Gyimah (2002) have observed that Ghanaian schools generally have large classes. Although the MoE (2003) has stated that the national ratio of teacher to pupils at the basic education level is 34:1 for the 2003/2004 academic year, the evidence is that the ratio is higher than the national figure in many parts of the country. For example, there are areas where the ratio is 80:1. In fact Gadagbui (1998,

p. 124) has questioned how larger classes, such as ‘80 pupils in a class’ can help transform the country’s educational system.

However, Avoke, Hayford and Ocloo (1999) note that the issue about class size is controversial, because the ‘ideal’ class size can be influenced to some extent by variables such as the subject and age of pupils. This notwithstanding, interactions with teachers in both special and regular schools, as well as student-teachers during both school-attachment programme and teaching practice, unearthed some interesting ideas about the ideal class size. The following were the general views that emerged from these interactions: lower primary 20-25 pupils, upper primary –junior secondary 30- 35. “No matter the age of pupils, if class size is 50 and above, it is abnormal” (Avoke, Hayford and Ocloo, 1999, p. 17) and teachers may have difficulty managing the classes.

Additionally, some writers have argued that larger classes adversely affect teachers’ continuous assessment practice (Amedahe, 2000; Asamoah-Gyimah, 2002). According to Asamoah-Gyimah (2002), larger classes affect the number as well as the variety of items a teacher includes in her assessment because the time for marking, processing and filling of records has to be considered. On his part, Amedahe (2000) points out that the pressure to finish within a specific time will make teachers inconsistent in their marking. In their studies both Asamoah-Gyimah (2002) and Angbing (2001) reported that teachers identified larger classes as an impediment to their continuous assessment practice. The studies did not include information concerning teachers’ continuous assessment and lower attaining pupils. There was a gap concerning uses of continuous assessment and lower attaining pupils in Ghana.

2.6.5 Peripatetic Teachers

In spite of the larger classes, the education policies in Ghana do not provide for recruitment of learning/teaching assistants to help teachers in the classrooms. Importantly, there are peripatetic officers who occasionally visit regular schools to support to teachers in managing pupils with SEN. However, the number of peripatetic officers is few and they are mainly attached to district education offices; they visit schools only by request. Originally, the peripatetic service focused mainly on children with deafness; however, Avoke et al. (1998) suggest that since 1994 the service has been expanded to include the blind and those with learning difficulties. Additionally, peripatetic officers are trained as special education teachers; they are selected after their training (university) to fill the positions at the district offices. The personnel do not have any special training regarding teaching and assessing lower attaining pupils. Consequently it may be difficult for peripatetic teachers to contribute meaningfully towards supporting lower attaining pupils in classrooms.

2.7 Teacher education and professional development in Ghana in relation to