This next section discusses the treatments applied to mitigate issues surrounding the rigour, in other words integrity in which this study was conducted to ensure the trustworthiness of the study’s findings. This section also discusses the ethical issues in relation to working with human participants as suggested in the literature. Concepts such as reliability, validity and generalisability are typically associated with quantitative research. Instead alternative terminology drawing from the seminal qualitative research methodology literature as applied to this study will now be outlined. Qualitative inquiry researchers have demonstrated a variety of measures to deal with the notion of quality or trustworthiness of the research process; however, in this instance four constructs of trustworthiness, that is credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability (Guba, 1981) as they were applied to this research will now be examined.
3.5.1 Credibility
A significant body of peer reviewed literature surrounding the credibility of qualitative studies suggests rich evidence must be documented that allows the reader to follow the logic of the data analysis, along with the resultant conclusions (Merriam, 2009). Data collection and analysis were undertaken by the same researcher, experienced as a science teacher, and now science teacher educator, facilitating a consistent and
102
credible approach throughout the data collection (Patton, 2002). The Researcher was highly familiar with working in Department of Education science classroom settings which enabled a natural flow of communication.
A convergence of multiple sources of data and collection strategies, as well as, method triangulation was applied to this research to enhance the credibility of the emergent findings (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002; Punch & Oancea, 2014). The
techniques applied to demonstrate the credibility of the present research is now outlined.
3.5.2 Method triangulation
Method triangulation was undertaken in this study, as data were collected from multiple sources including, in-depth participant interviews, both pre- and post-lesson debriefing interviews, artefact analysis and including videoed evidence of classroom practice. Method triangulation were also achieved through comparison of the participants’ interviews and lesson observation data with the instructional material curated on their personal teaching websites and/or other type of virtual classroom environments. Data triangulation also occurred as the data were collected across several participants in different settings and at different times (Twining, 2017). Theoretical triangulation also occurred as the data were interpreted using two theoretical frameworks; Shulmans PRA model (1987) and Engeström’s CHAT (1987).
3.5.2.1 Reflexivity
A rigorous reflexive stance is advocated in the qualitative methods literature which is best described by Charmaz (2006) who states that reflexivity is:
The Researcher’s scrutiny of his or her research experience, decisions and interpretations in ways that bring the researcher into the process and allow the reader to assess how and to what extent the Researcher’s interest, position and assumptions influenced inquiry. A reflexive stance informs how the researcher conducts his or her research, relates to the research participants and represents them in written reports (pp. 188-189)
The positional reflexivity (Punch & Oancea, 2014) or the lens through which the researcher positions the research from has been acknowledged and elaborated both in the
103
conceptual framework (see Figure 2.9) along with the articulation of the interpretivist epistemological stance and subsequent data analysis strategy as discussed earlier in this Chapter. The Researcher compiled written field notes into a journal during and
immediately following each interview and classroom observation. Analytic memos, often in the form of concept maps and tables were also noted in the Researchers’ journal. The Researchers’ interpretations were checked for accuracy by asking the participants to confirm these interpretations and to provide clarification when necessary throughout the duration of the study.
With any ethnographically oriented study the researcher must remain vigilant and set aside assumptions (Denscombe, 2007); however, the Researcher acknowledges that any attempt at explanation of the social phenomena presented in this study is based on my own values and interests. It is strongly advocated in ethnographically oriented studies to adopt a ‘fly-on-the-wall’ stance during each observation. The Researcher tried to remain as unobtrusive as possible during filming. Whilst the Researcher aimed to cultivate an empathic relationship and build rapport with each of the participants for the duration of the study, the aim each visit was not to suggest or lead the participant towards any outcomes. In other words a non-directive interview and video recording technique was adopted (Twining, 2017).
3.5.2.2 Member checking
As strongly advocated in the literature, a critical strategy serving to enhance the credibility of the findings is allowing the participants to comment and assess the
interpretations of the data in which they have participated (Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). This is known as member checking. A final member-checking interview was undertaken with each participant to verify the interpretations and emerging theories that were made.
Other credibility enhancing tactics employed included debriefing sessions
between the Researcher and the highly experienced supervisors of this study to widen the vision and bring their experiences and perceptions to bear. The supervisors were able to critique and verify the Researchers’ interpretations, providing an element of analyst triangulation (Patton, 2002). Furthermore, guidance from these experienced researchers ensured rigorous qualitative research procedures were followed. Other opportunities for
104
scrutiny of this project involved presenting the findings at several university research colloquiums. This afforded the Researcher chances to explain, defend and review the research design considering the comments made.
3.5.3 Transferability
The construct of transferability of the findings is akin to the concept of external validity or generalisability as applied in quantitative studies and refers to the extent to which the findings can be applied to another situation (Stake, 2010). Transferability is enhanced by offering detailed or thick descriptions of the contextual and situational information under which the study’s findings operate. This enables the reader to make judgments or comparisons so that they may then be able to relate the findings to their own situations or other contexts. As used in this research, another technique used to improve the transferability of the study’s emergent findings is to include multiple cases along with a cross-case comparison (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Stake, 2010; Yin, 2014).
Additionally, the situational context for each case is clearly outlined, allowing the reader to appreciate the boundaries of each setting.
3.5.4 Dependability
Trustworthiness of a study also involves establishing the dependability of its findings. In quantitative practice this concept is referred to as reliability and is taken to mean that the findings could be repeated and would be consistent if the same research methods were re-employed (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). Demonstration of credibility generally reinforces the dependability of the study’s findings. However, addressing dependability in qualitative practice, given the unique contextual nature of the data collected, means that if the study were repeated, the results would not necessarily be the same. Dependability as a validation strategy is then taken to mean describing the research design and its implementation in vivid detail (Shenton, 2004). Dependability of this present research was assured through the articulation of clear procedures before commencing data collection, along with the active and reflexive documentation of the
105
Researchers’ actions throughout data analysis that clearly articulates the method of interpretation (Creswell, 2009).
3.5.5 Confirmability
Finally, conformability is provided through the objectivity of the research data itself (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), in other words, the degree of neutrality in the research findings. In an empiricist sense this was taken to mean that the researcher, makes a considered attempt to distance themselves from the phenomenon being studied or from a qualitative perspective this means explicating one’s own predispositions (Miles,
Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). Already established earlier in this Chapter is the
Researchers’ stance on the interpretivist nature of knowledge and reality. The Researcher has already methodologically accounted for her influence on the inter-subjective basis of the researcher-participant interaction (Gillespie & Cornish, 2010) and the interpretations of human activity, text and artifacts undertaken throughout this study, otherwise known as reflexivity (Yin, 2014).
In synopsis, the exploratory nature of this research implied that the truth was not a permanent reality, but rather relevant to the lived experience of the members in this study and the discoveries were an agreement between the Researcher and each members of this research (Denscombe, 2007).