Knowledge Acquisition

Knowledge is a key element of the TT process, since technology cannot become widespread unless it is enhanced by knowledge transfer.

Philosophical debates in general start with Plato‟s formulation of knowledge as „justified true belief‟. There is currently, however, no single agreed definition of knowledge, nor any prospect of there being one, and there remain numerous competing theories. This is because there is a multiplicity of doctrines for understanding knowledge. Therefore, the difference in understanding of knowledge is obvious among philosophers. Some of them perceive that rationalism is the main route to knowledge, while others see it instead as empiricism.

However, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant argued that knowledge arises only when both the logical thinking of rationalism and sensory experience of empiricism work together (Kant, 1999).

Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, learning, communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose if appropriate.

Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) classify human knowledge into two kinds. One is explicit knowledge, which can be articulated in formal language including grammatical statements, mathematical expressions, specifications, manuals, and so forth. This kind of knowledge thus can be transmitted between individuals formally and easily. This has been the dominant mode of knowledge in the Western philosophical tradition. However, they also argue that a more important kind of knowledge is tacit knowledge, which is hard to articulate with formal language. It is personal knowledge embedded in individual experience and involves intangible factors such as personal beliefs, perspectives, and value systems (Koskinen et al., 2002). Tacit knowledge has been overlooked as a critical component of collective human behaviour. Tacit knowledge, due to its non-codifiable nature, has to be transferred through

„intimate human interactions‟ (Tsang, 1997; in Li-Hua, 2000). Herein, the role of expatriates (Finn-Iraqis) represents a key player to facilitate these interactions.

In Japan, for instance, the Japanese consider tacit knowledge an important source of their companies‟ competitiveness. This is probably a major reason that Japanese management styles are viewed as somewhat of an enigma among Western people. In contrast, in Western

philosophy, the individual is the principal agent who possesses and processes knowledge.

However, Nanoka and Takeuchi show in their study that in organisational knowledge creation consists of two major components: the individual interacts with the organisation through knowledge and the forms of knowledge interaction. The two forms of interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge and between the individual and the organisation bring four major processes of knowledge conversion, which together constitute knowledge creation Figure 3.3:

1. from tacit to explicit 2. from explicit to explicit 3. from explicit to tacit

4. from tacit to tacit

Figure 3.3: Knowledge Creation Theory (Nanoka and Takeuchi, 1995)

Organisational knowledge is a mixture of tacit and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is stored in individuals‟ heads .It is a product of experiences, insights and intuition which could be technical (i.e. the know-how of an expert) or cognitive (i.e. based on values, beliefs and perceptions). In the context of construction, examples of tacit knowledge include estimating and tendering skills acquired over time through hands-on experience of preparing bids, understanding the construction process, interaction with clients/customers and project team members in the construction supply chain, as well as understanding tender markets (Egbu and Robinson, 2005).

This type of knowledge is experiential, judgmental, context-specific and therefore difficult to codify and share. Explicit knowledge is stored as written documents or procedures. As this type of knowledge is codifiable, it is reusable in construction including design codes of practice, performance specifications, drawings in paper-based or electronic format and construction techniques. Materials testing procedures, design sketches and images, 3D models and textbooks are also examples of explicit knowledge.

Construction project knowledge is created through the actions of individuals, project teams and construction organisations, and the interactions of these different types of knowledge (explicit and tacit) from concept design to handing over of the completed project.

Tacit to tacit interaction takes place through the process of socialisation. An architect giving a verbal account or an explanation of a design concept to a client during a meeting is an example of this form of interaction. Apprentice carpenters, bricklayers, plumbers, etc. often work with their masters to learn craftsmanship not through formal instruction but by socialisation which involves observation, imitation and practice. The long tradition of apprenticeship schemes in the construction industry is responsible for producing numerous artisans who rely on their tacit knowledge to solve construction problems. Such experiential knowledge is reinforced and developed through shared experience by continuous interaction and learning from each other.

Internalisation takes place when knowledge is transferred from explicit to tacit by individuals. For example, an architect reading a textbook on design theory, or using a manual on design standards, could interpret these explicit documents to create an internal mental model of a unique design satisfying the client‟s requirements and his/her taste and style.

Externalisation is the reverse process whereby tacit knowledge is made explicit so that it can be shared. An architect engaged in a discussion with a contractor on site, which is subsequently followed by a written instruction made available to specialist subcontractors, engineers and quantity surveyors, is an example of an externalisation process. This process also takes place when an architect translates a design concept or mental model into sketches to explain to a client.

Explicit to explicit knowledge interaction takes place through a process called combination.

Combination involves gathering, integrating, transferring, diffusing and editing knowledge (Nonaka and Toyoma, 2003; Robison and Egbu, 2005). Individuals and project teams in construction create knowledge through integrating and processing various project documents (e.g. design brief, sketches, project programme, engineering and production drawings, performance specifications, conditions of contract, bill of quantities). Technologies such as e-mail, databases, CAD systems, document management system and project extranets facilitate this mode of knowledge conversion. Various other technologies and techniques are used to facilitate other knowledge conversion processes, such as face-to-face interactions, communities of practice, project review meetings, brainstorming sessions and „toolbox talk‟

on site. Much of the training and experience of construction professionals is based on a balance between codified (explicit) and tacit knowledge.

Tacit knowledge is based on „learning-by-doing‟ which can be included within a joint venture agreement. This is in contrast to turnkey projects which exclude such commitment to facilitate tacit knowledge acquisition. Thus, turnkey projects were one of the main failure-causing factors in the Algerian TT process (Saad, 2002), after which was noted the need to adopt a reform plan that included the learning-by-doing approach and local labour involvement. In contrast, turnkey contracts can be better suited to developed countries due to the possession of advanced knowledge and technology.