Knowledge and regulation of learning task demands: A focus on reading

This section discusses the third of our elements of metacognition, namely knowledge and regulation of learning task demands. A focus is placed specifically on task demands related to reading. After providing some essential definitions of reading, the section then addresses text types, and schemata theory in reading.

Defining reading

Experts admit that defining reading is as difficult as understanding the reading process itself and that reading comprehension is a complex process to teach and assess (Randi, Grigorenko, & Sternberg, 2005, p. 21). These authors note a lack of research on how strategies work together to contribute to comprehension, and which skills are necessary for comprehension to occur. Similarly, Duzer (1999, p. 2) defined reading as an active, complex process of comprehending written language, encompassing many different skills. In a same way, Anderson (2003, p. 68) defines reading as a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their background knowledge to build meaning. Hudelson (cited in Ediger, 2001, p. 154) notes that:

In reading, an individual constructs meaning through an interaction with written text that has been created by symbols that represents language. The interaction involves the reader acting

on or interpreting the text. The interaction is influenced by the reader’s past experiences, language background and culture framework, as well as the reader’s purpose for reading.

It is therefore clear that reading involves a complex interaction between what a learner already knows and what is stated in a reading text.

Baker (cited in Randi, 2005, p. 22), however, explicitly highlights the importance of metacognition in reading when he says that reading comprehension is a cognitve process and that metacognition, or thinking about the cognitive processes involved in reading, has been a primary focus of reading comprehension research. Bruning, et al. (2004), for example, alert readers they must learn to direct their attention to the relevant elements of the text in an organised, systematic way. Attention is needed to control eye-movements and focus on specific words. Readers must move successfully from word to word and be directed to important ideas in the text. They must shift appropriately between text and illustrations. This description emphasises that reading is a complex undertaking that involves more than understanding single words in a text. One way of facilitating reading is through understanding text types.

Understanding text types

Text types are genres by which a reader can approach a new text with some familiarity. They contain different text structures, which aid this process. Peregoy, et al. (2008) note two kinds of text types, that is, expository and narrative. Expository text structures consist of enumerative, compare and contrast, problem and solution, and cause and effect. Narrative text structure consists of the setting, characters, conflict and resolution. Understanding text structure is important because research indicates that readers use their knowledge of text structure to store, retrieve, and summarise information they retrieve (Meyer, et. al., cited in Peregoy, et al., 2008, p. 339). Understanding text structure, then, is facilitated by cohesive ties or signal words (Peregoy, et al., 2008). Knowledge of different text types can assist learners’ understanding of task demands, and hence their understanding of which reading- related strategies might be relevant.

Another powerful means to facilitate learners’ understanding in reading is to activate their schemata, as explained in the next section.

Schemata theory in reading

When engaged in reading, an individual has to link new information to old information. This process is explained by schemata theory, which holds that meaning is constructed by readers on the basis of the information they encounter, what they already know, and the way they interact with new information (Bruning, et al., 2004, p. 274).

Schemata are important since comprehension depends heavily on learner inferences. The schemata which readers activate, and how elaborate they are, guide which inferences they will make. This makes it possible for readers to summarise context and guide how content is constructed (Bruning et al., 2004, p. 275).

Bruning et al. identify two ways of linking new information to old. The first is advance organisers. This method was developed by Ausubel (cited in Bruning et al., 2004, p. 276) and refers to “appropriately relevant and inclusive introductory materials… introduced in advance of learning… and presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality and inclusivensses” than subsequently learned materials. Advanced organisers are designed to provide “ideational scaffolding that assist in relation to the more detailed material that follows. They provide the framework for materials to be learned” (p. 276). Advocates of organisers suggest that they provide readers with an analogy for upcoming content. Concrete organisers and examples are more beneficial than abstract ones (Corkill; Corkill, Glover & Bruning; Dinnel & Glover, cited in Bruning, et al., 2004, p. 276).

Bruning et al.’s second means of linking new information to old is schema activation, which refers to a set of activities designed to activate relevant knowledge in memory prior to encountering new to-be-learned information (Derry; Schallert, cited in Bruning, et al., 2004, p. 277). Schemata activation is perhaps more popularly known as activating background knowledge, a metacognitive strategy that is used prior to reading.

To help learners deploy learning strategies when reading, they should be presented with a learning task which is set at an appropriate level of understanding. Baker and Brown (cited in Griffith & Ruan, 2005, p. 13) state that active control of one’ cognitive resources (self-regulatory mechanism) occur when the learner encounters the task of

intermediate difficulty. It is therefore important that learners work on reading tasks which increment in terms of their difficulty.

When supporting students in their development of metacognitive knowledge and control, carefully selected reading materials should be considered (Griffith & Ruan, 2005, p. 13). In teaching reading and helping learners to cope with a reading task, teachers need to scaffold instructions by analysing the task to be carried out by the students. They also need to determine what part of the task might present difficulty for the students and provide practice with strategies that enable the students to complete the task successfully (Griffith & Ruan, 2005, p. 15).

Three elements of metacognition need to be promoted in order to facilitate learners’ self-regulation in learning. Those are: knowledge and regulation of affective factors; strategies; and task demands. Affective factors constitute motivation and attitude, volition, feeling, attribution, learned-helplessness, and self-efficacy. Three core elements of metacognitive strategies (i.e. planning, monitoring and evaluation) should gain prime importance. These strategies will facilitate the performance of cognitive and social-affective strategies in understanding task demands.