L IMIT E MPLOYEE D EVELOPMENT

Despite what many managers say about the importance of investing in employee training and developing talent, many form rigid opinions of what their workers are capable of. They then resist changing those views despite evidence that employees have matured, have become more experi- enced, or now possess talents that weren’t apparent when they were first hired. This permanent appraisal of employee competence happens all too often and is a major cause of employee discontent and high turnover. According to Brian Sullivan, the head of executive recruiter Christian & Timbers, “Often the only way employees can get away from how they’ve been stereotyped and broaden their capabilities is to move to a different company—which, of course, is expensive for the employer losing them.”

Those who resign themselves to being pigeonholed or typecast by their boss end up contributing to the organization at a fraction of their potential. A sales employee at a high-tech company that is eager to sell and manufacture products in China has reminded his superiors several times that he worked for five years in China and has numerous contacts there. But he has repeatedly been brushed aside and told that his expertise is his domestic sales territory. After a while, he abandoned his ideas for adding value and said, “Forget it, they don’t want to use what I know, so I’ll just do what they tell me and collect my check.”

Pigeonholing persists in part because it is efficient, at least in the short term. Top executives depend on certain tasks getting done, day in and day out. The easiest way to accomplish this is to assign employees to jobs and functions in which they have experience. But rigid typecasting also discourages initiative and innovation, not only among lower-level employees but also among middle managers. The marketing manager at a U.S. retailer who recently recruited an internal candidate with a technology background can’t understand why his boss has continued to oppose the move. “My boss complains that my new guy is a geek who can’t do marketing when, in fact, he’s got some finance and Web design skills we need and is making my team of right-brain types stronger,” the manager says. But the boss is still criticizing the man’s work and praising another employee with whom he enjoys talking sports but whose work is mediocre.

Effective managers avoid limiting their employees and holding them in a rigid box based on an initial assessment. Instead, these managers are committed to ongoing employee growth and devel- opment and encourage their employees to take advantage of learning opportunities, whether they be formal training programs or more informal experiences through work assignments that have devel- opmental value. Michael Critelli, CEO of Pitney Bowes, the document management services com- pany based in Stamford, Connecticut, provides a useful model. He believes that managers who form rigid opinions about what employees can and can’t do invariably waste their talents. Critelli regularly moves top managers across functions and businesses “so they get progressively broader experi- ence,” he says.

Source: Adapted from C. Hymowitz, “Bosses Who Pigeonhole Workers Waste Talent, Contribute to Turnover,” Wall Street Journal, 24 May 2005, B1.

maintain interest, appear meaningful and relevant to the training, provide positive expectations and confidence, and serve as an overall satisfying experience, espe- cially with immediate feedback indicating successful mastery of the new skills or knowledge.19

A third domain of learning, the psychomotor domain, often relates to the acqui- sition of new physical skills, such as typing, correct enunciation of previously unfamiliar and difficult vocal sounds in a new foreign language, or becoming ac- customed to driving on the opposite side of the road (for example, switching from driving in Germany to driving in Japan).20 _{Here we have a combination of the} “psyche,” or intellect, and motor coordination. However, this domain also pertains to the learning of information in the cognitive domain but at a very deep level. A fairly common characteristic of this domain of learning is that mastery tends to require significant practice, typically to the level of unconscious, rote, or near- automatic performance—often referred to as overlearning.21 _{For example, although} to a great extent falling in the cognitive domain, learning to speak fluently in a new language involves the psychomotor domain, where an individual does not have to stop to conjugate a verb or organize the appropriate string of foreign words to effectively express an opinion—the language flows forth automatically. Many tasks require an individual to perform in the midst of significant distractions and stressful conditions where, although a conscious focus might be lacking, the per- son is still able to perform flawlessly due to the unconscious or automatic nature of this deep level of learning.

L

EVELS OF

L

EARNING

Within the cognitive domain are various levels of learning, and they should be differ- entiated depending on the nature of the desired performance of the employee.22 _The levels of learning acronym, “CASE,” shown in Figure 7.1 on page 182, provides a simple distinction regarding these levels with their increasing depth and cognitive complexity. The most shallow level, at “C,” involves the basic comprehension of a message, rule, or principle. “A,” at the next level, involves the ability to analyze a problem situation and break it up into an effective examination of the most important parts of the situation. “S” involves the ability to synthesize or reassemble the parts to form a clear total picture or diagnosis of a solution or set of alternative solutions to the problem. “E,” at the deepest level of learning, pertains to evaluating the most appropriate action to take based on existing objectives or determining the decision that would yield the greatest value. Effective managerial decision making resides at this deepest level of learning in the cognitive domain and is often equated with wis- dom gained through lessons learned from direct experience or vicariously through case study or relevant models.23

P

RINCIPLES OF

A

DULT

L

EARNING

Although many principles of learning apply to both adults and children, particular needs for adults for optimizing successful training in organizations include the following:24

1. Familiarity: Relating the new training to the participants’ previous experi- ence or what they already know.

2. Pragmatic or Problem-Centered: Meaningful in addressing relevant prob- lems or fulfilling real needs as perceived by the participants.

3. Personal Influence and Control: The participants perceive that they have self-direction, influence, and control in the learning process, with active in- volvement and frequent meaningful interaction with the trainer and fellow participants.

4. Values of Mutual Trust and Respect, Openness, and Honesty: All involved in the training have something to share and contribute and are worthy of respect and trust. This respect and trust are based on expectations of open- ness and honesty in all of the interactions of the training—between trainer and participants and among all participants.

S

ENSITIVITY TO

C

ROSS

-C

ULTURAL

D

IFFERENCES

As with all other practices of international human resource management, general training concepts and principles should be implemented with sensitivity to possible effects of cultural differences.25 _{Notwithstanding the previously mentioned general} adult learning priorities of openness and participant control in the learning process, trainees in many countries typically bring with them years of experience in formal education where instructors are supreme and not to be questioned. Americans who conduct training in Western Europe and Asia often experience a hesitancy on the part of participants to assert personal control and become actively involved, most likely due to the fairly passive learning and authoritarian instructor roles with which they are familiar and have grown accustomed.

This tendency to avoid asserting personal control in the learning process also will likely be high in cultures with high power distance, where the trainer’s leadership status and role of authority should not be questioned or challenged. In one study we noted this tendency based on the perceptions of host country managers in Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand.26 _{However, notwithstand-} ing this particular similarity among these Pacific Rim countries, we also found sig- nificant differences among the countries on other dimensions related to accepted conduct and management of training, such as degree of trainer supervision, frequency of feedback, use of extrinsic rewards and controls, and opportunities for interaction. We concluded that managers planning workforce training should not simply assume (1) significant homogeneity or similarity among Pacific Rim countries, and (2) that principles guiding the management of training in their own home country would also likely be appropriate for their local employees in other countries.

S

YSTEMS

A

PPROACH

To ensure that training is used effectively and has the desired impact on employee and organizational performance, training and development efforts should be guided by a systems approach. Although there are several models and versions of this sys-

tems approach, they generally tend to follow a similar systematic, scientifically based procedure that thoughtfully takes into account many different parts, or systems, that are relevant to the training and work performance situation.27 _{Figure 7.2 features six} basic phases of a systems approach to training and development. We will now briefly discuss each phase separately.

Phase 1: Conduct Needs Assessment

This first phase of training needs assessment is extremely important for, first of all, determining whether a training need actually exists rather than simply following a desire to employ a current workplace fad.28 _{Rather than a lack of knowledge and} skills, it has been our experience that suboptimal employee performance is often due to poor communication, poor job design and work procedures, or a reward system with disincentives to performance and inadequate incentives (both financial and non- financial), or a combination of these. Even when it has been determined that training is warranted for supplying new knowledge and skills, a careful needs assessment is important for ensuring that training is designed and implemented cost-effectively (that is, achieving objectives at minimal cost in time and resources) as well as sup- ported and reinforced by work design and supervision, the reward system (formal and informal), and the overall workplace environment.

A thorough training needs assessment examines training needs at the organiza- tional level, the job or work operations level, and the individual level.29 _{Examined at} the organizational level are such factors as organizational performance objectives, available resources, and possible supportive changes from the organizational culture

Figure 7.1 CASE Model on Levels of Learning in the Cognitive Domain

Level of Complexity

C = Comprehend a message, rule, or principle.

A = Analyze a problem situation and break it up for an

effective examination of the most important parts of the situation.

S = Synthesize or reassemble the parts of the problem

situation to form a clear total picture or diagnosis of a solution or set of alternative solutions to the problem.

E = Evaluate the most appropriate action to take or the

decision that would yield the greatest value. Low

and reward system. At the work operations level the nature of the particular perfor- mance to be mastered is carefully examined and the training content for supplying new knowledge or skills to enable this desired performance is considered. In cases of an existing performance problem or desire to improve performance, this analysis might also examine the causes of the performance problem, including particular behaviors contributing to the problem that should be avoided in the future. In addi- tion, the prevailing conditions in which the work is to be performed (for example, job design, supervision and other potential sources of support and reinforcement, or possible obstacles impeding performance) are studied. This work-operations-level examination should include input from as many different sources as possible of those involved in the particular work performance, including those directly performing the work, previous holders of the job, supervisors, customers, and subordinates. For ex- ample, input from members of a host country workforce having experience with past expatriates can be very useful for enhancing the validity of expatriate training by identifying what specific behaviors expatriates should avoid and what they should engage in to optimize their success in the expatriate assignment.30

Finally, at the individual level the particular needs or characteristics of the trainee or trainees are carefully considered. Besides the level of familiarity with the training material, particularly relevant to global business at this level are such personal fac- tors as trainee language skills, technical and basic skills, and cultural influences. For example, in their analysis of possible country sites for foreign direct investment in Central and Eastern Europe, MNCs in the high-tech industry have looked favorably

Figure 7.2 Systems Approach for Training and Development

Phase 1: Conduct Needs Assessment

Phase 2: Develop Training Objectives

Phase 3: Design and Develop Training

Phase 4: Test and Revise Training Prototype

Phase 5: Implement Training

on the Czech Republic due to that country’s high levels of literacy and skills in computer technology within the labor force compared to other countries of the re- gion. Thus, in anticipating future training needs for their host country operations, these MNCs would consider the individual characteristics of the Czech Republic’s workforce as very positive due to their familiarity with high-tech applications and lack of the need to provide considerable basic skills and remedial training.

Phase 2: Develop Training Objectives

Based on the preceding needs assessment, detailed training objectives are developed that identify what specific behaviors the intended trainees (keeping in mind their particular needs and characteristics) are supposed to be able to perform as a result of the training as well as the expected conditions in which the behavior is to be per- formed. These objectives are very important in providing guidance for each of the subsequent phases of the systems approach to training—with each phase being car- ried out with close attention to the specifications of the objectives. The responsive- ness of each subsequent phase to fitting the particular training objectives should be assessed at the end of each phase.

Phase 3: Design and Develop Training

The training is now designed and prepared based on the training objectives, including such decisions as selection of training method or combination of methods, how the training will be provided or delivered—including selection of possible trainers and the sequence of training material presented. Plans also should be made here for possibly adjusting or redesigning the work environment to ensure that the soon-to-be-acquired knowledge and skills are actually supported and reinforced. For example, besides providing effective technical skills training at MNC headquarters for HCNs from various foreign operations, there should be a plan to ensure that the appropriate equip- ment and tools are ready and available back at the foreign operations for the HCN trainees’ use after the training—otherwise the newfound skills might rapidly begin to atrophy (“If you don’t use it, you lose it”).

A cardinal rule guiding the selection of training methods is that the most cost-

effective method or combination of methods to use depends upon the training objec-

tives. Generally, experiential methods (for example, practice, role playing, international travel, and work experience with a foreign culture) are very effective training methods. And if it is desirable for trainees to be able to demonstrate appro- priate behavior for a given situation, they ideally should have the opportunity to

practice the skill-based behavior until they are able to demonstrate their mastery at the end of the training. But experiential training approaches also tend to require much more expense and time—which might not be available—and are often much less predictable than more passive, less intensive training approaches, such as read- ings, computer-assisted media, or brief live presentations. Ultimately the particular needs of the training situation, reflected in the training objectives, should dictate the methods used to effectively achieve the objectives at the lowest possible cost.

Phase 4: Test and Revise Training Prototype

Once the training plans are set and appropriate materials are developed, there ideally should be a trial test of the training to make sure that it is on target and leads to achievement of the training objectives. In every training program there are inevitably unexpected “bugs” in the program that should be eliminated for achieving optimal training effectiveness. Where possible, a small group of those representing the in- tended audience or the recipients of the training should receive the training on a test basis prior to its widespread usage. Or there should be at least some kind of review by those representing the perspective of the intended recipients to increase the like- lihood that the training is on target. For example, in preparing for the training of lower-level HCNs in a foreign operation, besides giving earlier input as part of the needs assessment process, HCN supervisors or managers could be very helpful in reviewing the intended training plans prior to actual implementation—especially in helping to avoid confusion or culturally based insults or offending messages.31 _{As a} more concrete illustration, we once prepared a leadership training session for execu- tives from the People’s Republic of China (PRC). One of the assigned readings for this training included a very brief but positive reference to the Dalai Lama, generally a very unpopular figure within the PRC due to his advocacy of the liberation of Tibet from the PRC. Not wanting to cause a politically charged distraction from our in- tended training objectives, we were grateful that those reviewing and translating our materials into Mandarin spotted this potential problem and respectfully suggested that we might want to delete the reference to the Dalai Lama.

Phase 5: Implement Training

The training plan is now fully implemented, with careful attention to ensure that the training is being implemented according to the plan.

Phase 6: Evaluate Training

Finally, the training is evaluated in terms of its effectiveness in achieving the training objectives—the objectives themselves guiding this evaluation process (represented in Figure 7.2 by the arrow flow from phase 6 to phase 2). For example, as a result of the cross-cultural awareness training, are the PCNs able to describe particular gen- eral behavioral characteristics of the workforce of a host country firm that they have just acquired? Or beyond their ability to merely describe, are they also able to dem- onstrate appropriate behavior for a given cross-cultural situation in which conflict might be involved? As mentioned earlier, the training objectives should specify what the trainees should be able to do as a result of the training, and the evaluation should assess whether this behavioral learning objective has been achieved.

The trainees might be able to demonstrate mastery of the new knowledge or skills, even in specific applications months later, back in the workplace. However, in an effective training evaluation there also should be an assessment of whether the newly acquired knowledge and skills actually result in improved performance and organi-

zational productivity. Thus, the evaluation also should examine the original work

In document Managing a Global Workforce HR2 (Page 183-191)