Intertextuality 115
2. The card must be signed by the cardholder and may only be used(i) by that cardholder, (ii) subject 10 the terms of the Bar-claycard Conditions of Use which are current at the time of use, (iii) within the credit limit from time to time notified to the principal cardholder by the Bank, and (iv) to obtain the facilities from time to time made available by the Bank in respect of the card.
ge, upon the social conditions and mechanisms for the of a new discourse type which is constituted through a vel configuration of existing types, and specifically the
emerg-hybrid information-and-publicity (or 'telling-and-selling') The particular mix in this sample is of financial regula-s and advertiregula-sing: the text regula-setregula-s out the conditionregula-s of uregula-se of the elaycard service, and at the same time tries to 'sell' it. The text ducers are functioning in two situations and two sets of sub-positions at the same time, and also positioning readers in ntradictory ways. The central contradiction is the authority between bank and public: the bank is on the one hand communicating regulations to an 'authoritee', and the other hand a producer (authoritee) trying to sell to a nsumer (authoritor). Also at issue are interpersonal meanings in alliday's sense (see pp. 64-5 above).
text manifests a pattern of alternation at the level of the ntence between the discourse types of financial regulation and vertising, such that certain sentences are fairly clearly attribut-to one discourse type or another. For example, the headline looks like advertising, and sentence(6) looks like financial regula-Others, such as(12) and(14), are more ambivalent. But even sentences which generally belong to one discourse type often some trace of the other. For instance, in sentence (6) and throughout the text, the reader is directly addressed (as 'you').
Direct address is conventionally used as a marker of informality in modem advertising. There is one page in the guide headed 'Conditions of Use' which an interesting comparison. It lists thirteen conditions in very small print. There is no mixing ()f discourse types, and no direct address. Here is one of the conditions:
The word 'just' as it is used in the text (sentences (3), (8), (13) Itminimizes imoositions on the Intertextuality
114
you see a Visa sign you can present your Bardaycard
you wish to pay [11· The sales assistant will put your Card and
voucher through animprinrerto record your name and account
[21. numl'er
He will then the voucher and after ensuring that the are correct, you Just sign it [3J.
a copy of the voucher. which you should kee checking against your statement, and the goods are yours [4J P
That's all there is to it [51. .
You may use your BarcJaycard as much as you wish, provided your .are up to date and you keep within your available credit limit (this IS on the folder containing your Barclaycard) [61.
la Occasionally. the shop may have to make a telephone call to toobtain our authorisation for a transaction [7]. This is a
o.ur procedure.and we just make sure that everything isin
or er efore gIVIng the go-ahead [81.
. Inducieffort to deal more quickly with these calls, Bardaycard is mtro . a new automated system [9J.
ThISwillsave fa b 1
r you, Ut note tha:anytransactions which could
r:
a Barclaycardaccount Us credil limit could well declined [10]It IS tmponam toeamre that credit limit is sufficient to all and Cash [11J.
wish to take advantage of a mail order offer it's so much easierI to give your Bardaycard number rather than sending cheques or pasta orders[12J.
. Jus.t write card number in the space provided on the order form
signIt and sendItoff[13J. '
Or ifyou want to book theatre rickets, make travel reservations or even make a purchase by telephone, just quote your card number and the cost can be charged to your Barclaycard account [14J
You'll find Barclaycard can make life a whole lor [15).
My focus for this is . di . .
intertextuality) wi f upon kInter Iscurslvlty (constitutive
1 a ramewor of hegernonic struezle and
I ntertextuality 117
Inwhat follows, I shall work with the distinction already alluded to above between 'manifest intertextualiry' and 'interdiscursivity' ('constitutive intertextuality'), Manifest intertextuality is the case where specific other texts are overtly drawn upon within a text,
Manifest Intertextuality
to protect it from the adulterating effects of the market. The I1lma is manifest in the 'mode' of intertextual relation between financial information and advertising elements of the text, and the fact mentioned above that the text alternates een sentences which are primarily one rather than another.
gives the sense of the two discourse types trying uneasily to .st in the text, rather than being more fully integrated. (On des of intertextual relations see the beginning of the next tion.)
exts of the information-and-publicity or telling-and-selling are common in various institutional orders of discourse with-society. They testify to a colonizing movement advertising from the domain of commodity marketing in a ow sense to a variety of other domains. One can relate this to surge (associated in Britain with 'enterprise culture') the long-term process of commodification, the incorporation domains into the market, and a spread of consumerism.
onsumerism has been seen as entailing a shift in the relative of producer and consumer in favour of the latter, though it arguable to what extent this shift in power is substantive or osmetic.
Commodification, spreading consumerism, and marketization having widespread effects upon orders of discourse, ranging a pervasive restructuring of institutional orders of discourse the impact of the colonizing movement of advertising, arketing and managerial discourse, to the ubiquitous 'reword-mg' (see, p. 194 below) of publics, clients, students and so forth as 'consumers' or 'customers', These tendencies give rise to resistance, tohegemonic struggle over the structuring of orders of discourse, and to dilemmas for text producers and interpreters trying to work out ways of accommodating, containing or sub-verting colonization (see chapter 7 below).
Intertextuality 116
and thus the authority of the text producer shift towards the meamng of consumer authority. It commu .', cares core of simplicity: 'it's easy,.11I
rather IS .the of meanings which would
problematic within this mIX of telling-and-selling. For instan
Id in fi ial I ' ce,
one wou ,expect nanci regu anons that what is required from the client would be made explicit, as it is in the extract fro the 'Conditions of Use' quoted above. Yet although the te refers to actions required of client, obligation is explicitl,
only one case ('whIch you should keep for ing'), and even then the meaning is a weak obligation ('you to' rather than 'you must'). (See the discussion of below, pp. 158-62).
The italicized portion of the text - sentences (10) and the most clearly regulatory, yet. even there is a lot of down. The meaning expressed (10) IS potentially offensive to the client, but it is toned down through hypothetical
'could be declined'), the 'hedging' of 'could be declined' WIth 'well', and the use here of a passive without an agent, unspecified who might do the 'declining' _ it can easily be Inferred from the rest of the text that it is the bank but the text does not foreground it. In (11), the
obligation is put in impersonal terms ('it is important to ensure', rather than 'you must ensure'), and oddly transformed into a requirement to control the credit limit, which the bank in controls, rather than stay within it.
This mix of information about financial regulations and adver-tising can be interpreted as a way of reacting to a dilemma which institutions such as banking face in the modern market. Sectors of economy, outside production are increasingly being drawn the commodity model and the matrix of con-sumerism, and are under pressure to 'package' their activities as and 'sell' them to 'consumers'. This creates a par-ticular dIfficulty for banks: to emulate consumer goods their services must bow to the power of the consumer and be made attractive, simple and maximally unconstrained; yet the peculiar nature of the 'goods' on offer makes it imperative that consumers' access to them be controlled by rules and safeguards. This dilem-ma is not unique to banking,Itarises in a rather different form in education, where pressure to 'sell the product' is offset by
press-Intertextuality 117
Manifest Intertextuality
Inwhat follows, I shall work with the distinction already alluded to above between 'manifest intertextuality' and 'interdiscursivity' ('constitutive intertextuality'). Manifest is, the case where specific other texts are overtly drawn upon Within a text,
to protect it from the adulterating effects of the market. The lemma is manifest in the 'mode' ofintertextual relation between e financial information and advertising elements of the text, and the fact mentioned above that the text alternates tween sentences which are primarily one rather than another.
.s gives the sense of the two dis.course types uneasily to in the text, rather than being more fully integrated. (On odes of intertextual relations see the beginning of the next ction.)
Texts of the information-and-publicity or telling-and-selling are common in various institutional orders of discourse with-contemporary society. They testify to a
advertising from the domain of commodity marketing m a sense to a variety of other domains. One can relate this to surge (associated in Britain with 'enterprise culture') the long-term process of commodification, the
new domains into the market, and a spread of consumensm.
Consumerism has been seen as entailing a shift in the relative of producer and consumer in favour of the latter, it is arguable to what extent this shift in power is substantive or cosmetic.
Commodification, spreading consumerism, and marketization having widespread effects upon orders of discourse, ranging from a pervasive restructuring of institutional orders of
under the impact of the colonizing movement of advertising, marketing and managerial discourse, to the ubiquitous 'reword-ing' (see, p. 194 below) of publics, clients, so forth as 'consumers' or 'customers'. These tendencies nse to resistance, to hegemonic struggle over the structuring orders of discourse and to dilemmas for text producers and mterpreters trying to'work out ways of accommodating, containing or sub-verting colonization (see chapter 7 below),
Intertextuality 116
and thus the authority of the text producer a shift towards the meanmg of consumer authority. It comm
cares core of simplicity: 'it's
rather IS .the of meanings which would
problematic within this mIX of tellmg-and-selling, For instaD one would. expect in financial regulations that what is from theclientwould be made explicit, as it is in the extract fr the 'Con monsdi 0f U 'se quoted above. Yet although the t0111 refers to actions required of the client, obligation is
m only one case ('which you should keep for check 109'), and even then the meaning is a weak obligation ('you to' rather than 'you must'), (See the discussion of below, pp. 158-62).
The italicized portion of the text - sentences (10) and
the most clearly regulatory, yet even here there is a lot of tonin down: The expressed in (10) is potentially offensive
client, b,ut,It IS toned do,wn through hypothetical meaning be declined'), the 'hedging' of 'could be declined well, and ,the use here of a passive without an agent, !eaves unspecified who might do the 'declining' - it can easily be inferred from the rest of the text that it is the bank
but. foreground it. In (11), the
obligation IS put 10 Impersonal terms ('it is important to ensure' than 'you must ensure'), and oddly transformed into a requirement to control the credit limit, which the bank in fact controls, rather than stay within it.
, mix information about financial regulations and adver-be interpreted as a way of reacting to a dilemma which msntunons such as banking face in the modem market. Sectors of economy. outside commodity production are increasingly bemg .drawn into the commodity model and the matrix of con-and are under pressure to 'package' their activities as commodiries and 'sell' them to 'consumers'. This creates a
par-difficulty for banks: to emulate consumer goods their bow to the power of the consumer and be made attractive, simple and maximally unconstrained; yet the peculiar nature of the 'goods' on offer makes it imperative that consumers'
to be controlled by rules and safeguards, This dilem-ma IS unique to banking,Itarises in a rather different form in education, where pressure to 'sell the product' is offset by
press-Discourse Representation
I ntertextuality 119
nt and the functions of discourse in the representing text. Thus ere are differences in what is quoted when, how, and why, tween sermons, scientific papers, and conversation. A major .able in how discourse is represented is whether representation 'es beyond ideational or 'message' content to include aspects style and context of represented utterances. Volosinov 119-20) suggests that some cultures are more exclusively 'essage-oriented than others, and the same is true of some dis-urse practices within any particular culture, and within our lture.
(perhaps a nom de plume used by Bakhtin) high-a dynhigh-amic interplhigh-ay between the 'voices' of represented high-and epresenting discourse. Sample 1, for example, has illustrated how oices can be merged. Again there is considerable variation be-discourse types, which can be explained in terms of two scales: (i) to what extent the boundaries between representing and represented discourse are explicitly and clearly marked; and (ii) to what extent represented discourse is translated into the voice of the representing discourse.
The degree of 'boundary maintenance' is partly a matter of the choice between direct and indirect discourse representation. The purports at least to reproduce the exact words used in the represented discourse, although, as sample 1 showed, this is not the case. Indirect discourse, by contrast, is ambivalent:
cannot be sure whether the words of the original are repro-duced or not. Many accounts (see, for example, Leech and Short 1981) also distinguish a category of 'free indirect discourse', which lacks a reporting clause and is 'double-voiced', mixing the voices of representing and represented discourse, for instance the headline in sample 1 ('Call up Forces in Drug Battle!').
Another claim in Volosinov's account is that the meaning of represented discourse cannot be determined without reference to how it functions and is contextualized in the representing discourse. A good example of this is the use of 'scare quotes' placing single words or short expressions in quotation marks -such as the journalistic examples 'probe into "girlie" spy plot', 'a
"final" pay offer'. Expressions in scare quotes are simultaneously used and referred to: scare quotes establish them as belonging to an outside voice. Beyond that, they can have various more spe-cific functions, such as distancing oneself from the outside voice, using its authority to support one's position, showing a usage to Intertextuality
118
:embedded where text or discourse
IS clearly contained within the matrrx of another. This is the relationship between the 'styles' distinguished by Labov and Fanshel for therapeutic discourse (see the discussion in chapter 2);
'sequential' intertextuality, where different texts or
types alternate within a text, as is partly the case in sample 2;
I shall discuss manifest intertexruality in relation to: discourse representation, presupposition, negation, metadiscourse, and irony. (I have found Maingueneau 1987 a particularly useful source for this discussion.)
'mixed intertextuality', where texts or discourse types are merged in a more complex and less easily separable way.
whereas interdiscursivity is a matter of how a discourse type . constituted through a combination of elements of orders of course. The principle of interdiscursivity, though not the was discus.sed in connection with orders of discourse in
above. It IS also useful to bear in mind typological distinctions between different 'modes' of intertextual relations which already emerged in my discussion of the samples. One can tinguish between:
I use the term 'discourse representation' in preference to the traditional term 'speech reportage' because (i) it better captures the idea that when one 'reports' discourse one necessarily chooses to represent it in one way rather than another; and (ii) what is represented is not just speech, but also writing, and not just their grammatical features but also their discursive organization, as welI as various other aspects of the discursive event - its circum-stances, the tone in which things were said, etc. (See Fairclough 1988b for more detail.)
Discourse types differ not only in the way in which they represent discourse, but also in the types of discourse they
repre-Presupposition
I ntertextuality 121
Negative sentences are often used for polemical purposes. For instance, a newspaper headline inThe Sunreads 'I Didn't Murder Squealer! Robbey Trial Man Hits Out'. This negative first sen-tence presupposes the proposition, in some other text, that the person quoted here did murder a 'squealer' (police informant). So negative sentences carry special types of presupposition which
Negation
upposed propositions are a way of incorporating the texts of ers there is no contradiction in this case: the expression 'the and the presupposition it cues come from another as Bakhtin puts it) text which is here contested. Itshould that in many cases of presupposition the 'other text' is an individual specified or identifiable other text, but a more 'text' corresponding to general opinion (what people say, accumulated textual experience). The expression 'the threat' in this case, for example, is one that we can all as a widely-used formula, in Pecheux's terms a 'precon-cted' expression, which circulates in a ready-made form.
an intertextual account of presupposition, the case ere the presupposed proposition does constitute something for granted by the text producer can be interpreted in terms intenextual relations with previous texts of the text producer.
case of this is where a proposition is and in one pan of a text, and then presupposed m the rest It should be noted that presuppositions, whether they are based prior texts of the text producer or upon others' texts, may be manipulative as well as sincere. That is, the text may
a given for or. by
himself dishonestly, Insincerely, and WIth manipulative Intent.
Presuppositions are effective ways to
they are often difficult to challenge", a media interview who challenges apresupposinon a questIon from the interviewer can easily appear to be dodging the issue. Manipula-tive presuppositions also postulate interpreting subjects with par-prior textual experiences and assumptions, and in so doing they contribute to the ideological constitution of subjects.
Intertextuality 120
oe new or tentative, or introducing a new word. () may use direct discourse to build up or show up
discourse.
Contextualization of represented discourse takes many fa This is from sample 1: 'In one of the hardest-hitting reports for years, the committee - chaired by Tory lawyer Edward Gardner- warned gravely: "Western society is faced..
The specification of the context of the represented discourse the prestigious status of its chairman, and of its 'grave' tone' underscore the weightiness and importance of it. Notice' 'warned' (selected in preference to 'said', 'made out', or out'). The choice of representing verb, or 'speech act' always significant.As in this case, it often marks the illocutioll force of the represented discourse (the nature of the action formed in the uttering of a particular form of words),
The specification of the context of the represented discourse the prestigious status of its chairman, and of its 'grave' tone' underscore the weightiness and importance of it. Notice' 'warned' (selected in preference to 'said', 'made out', or out'). The choice of representing verb, or 'speech act' always significant.As in this case, it often marks the illocutioll force of the represented discourse (the nature of the action formed in the uttering of a particular form of words),