This chapter will demonstrate how four major traditions of scholarship should inform the development of critical language and literacy programs for tertiary students of English. They are:
Critical thinking – a tradition of scholarship that draws to some extent on psychology, philosophy and educational theory;
Critical literacy – a tradition devoted to interrogation of texts with a view to analysis of the values, ideologies and interests of persons involved in texts;
Critical pedagogy – a tradition devoted to dialogic education and interrogation of texts, democracy in the classroom and liberation;
Systemic functional linguistic (SFL) theory- a linguistic tradition devoted to analysis of texts and identification of different text types or genres for teaching purposes.
2.1 Introduction
Students of English education at the tertiary level have a number of requirements if they are to succeed in their studies and become successful teachers. They must be competent readers and writers, and able to interpret arguments in written texts as well as being able to write independent texts of their own, showing capacity for critical thinking.
This chapter outlines a program devoted to teaching skills of reading and writing critically and independently to tertiary students of English. The program proposed is based on a study (Emilia, 2005) which was conducted in an Indonesian tertiary institution, whose aim was to develop skills of critical thinking and critical reading and writing practices. The background theory drawn on to develop the program used work in critical thinking (e.g.Paul, 1993; Lipman, 2003; Wilks, 2004a,b), critical literacy (e.g. Luke & Freebody, 1997; Morgan, 1997) and SFL genre based theory (e.g. Feez, 2002; Christie, 2005), all of which were introduced in chapter 1. It is argued that we can develop a strong teaching program for the audience of tertiary level students which synthesizes elements of all these scholarly traditions, for they should all inform the professional preparation of teachers for teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesian schools.
The proposed program to some extent can be considered similar to content-based language programs (Met, 1998; Gracia, 2009) because it emphasizes both the students‟ understanding of the content involved and the language in which it is expressed. A knowledge of content and of language is essential in the development of students‟ critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinking would be impossible without the knowledge of content or of the language that expresses it. The program proposed here focuses on language growth as a necessary aspect of development of analytical and argumentative skills.
The proposed teaching program has these phases:
A planning phase in which (i) topics to be taught and materials to be used are identified, and (ii) some principles for evaluation and assessment are established.
A teaching phase devoted to active exploration of topics and texts, selected to engage students in learning critical and analytic skills, especially in their reading, where these are assessed in the process of teaching and learning.
A teaching phase devoted to introduction to SFL-related concepts and genre-based pedagogy.
A teaching phase devoted to writing discussion genres, drawing on both SFL theory and the critical and analytic skills developed in the earlier phase; evaluation and assessment are conducted qualitatively and quantitatively.
Below, we shall discuss each of these phases, seeking to clarify how they should be implemented.
2.2 Phase 1: Planning a teaching program devoted to teaching critical literacy skills at the tertiary level
When working with students of foreign and second languages, as Met (1998) argues, planning must be based both on an understanding of the students and their prior knowledge and capacities, and an understanding of their needs, in this case in developing critical literacy skills. Planning must also consider the most effective texts students should read as well as write. Caudery (1998), Gibbons (2002), and Gracia (2009: 361) state that in choosing texts for students who learn English as a foreign language, it is important that they be authentic, and ideally, not specifically written to teach language, or to teach reading in particular. This is because analysis shows that many texts written specifically to teach reading to beginners are often poorly expressed and even difficult to read. Gracia proposes that the selected texts relate to students‟ backgrounds and reflect the bilingual realities of students‟ lives and their multiculturalism (2009: 362).
In the contemporary world it is important in selecting texts that they be „multiple‟ in character (Luke and Freebody 1997; Frye 1997), and hence taken from various sources, such as magazines, newspapers, reports (Feez, 2002) and the Internet (Gibbons, 2002) to allow for more varied analysis of content and language (Varaprasad, 1997; Gibbons, Gracia 2009; Mohan 2001). Materials taken from the mass media provide “generative themes”, (Mazurek, 1999: 309) in that they can give topics that embody contradictions in contemporary ideology and explorations of these can potentially lead to critical reflection and even point to political empowerment. Similarly, texts from the Internet are important resources as they can ensure that all modes of communication (visual, as well as auditory) are fully exploited in the English language classroom (Gracia, 2009: 362). The Internet, it has been suggested, brings the entire world closer, and bilingual students must develop the ability to go beyond printed texts, including those provided by state authorities. Students can also be encouraged to find various sources themselves to enrich information for the English classroom, both in their reading and their writing.
As the overall suggested program involves an important writing phase, it is essential that in the planning phase the teacher selects sample texts to model the target genre to be written. In the program outlined here the target genre, as already indicated, is the Discussion genre (to be explained more fully below). While the SFL theory devoted to teaching genres is by now quite extensive, there may not always be sufficient examples of target genres to use, so the teacher may need to develop appropriate models, being careful to ensure authenticity. The recent adoption of genre based pedagogy as part of the national English curriculum (Depdiknas, 2006) no doubt helps in this regard. In the study Emilia (2005) conducted, several sample discussion genres were created, and this was necessary even at the tertiary level.
In the planning phase, attention needs to be given to principles of evaluation and assessment. In language education programs in general, there has been a long tradition of attaching particular importance to quantitative methods of evaluation, though as has been noted, there has been a „myth‟ about the values claimed for quantitative methods over qualitative methods (Best & Kahn, 1986; Fetterman, 1988). Both methods of evaluation have their role, though it
is argued here that many of the capacities taught in the name of critical thinking or genre- based pedagogy are not readily evaluated in any quantitative way. For example, the teacher can observe and judge changed capacities in students in challenging the values of the texts they read, or in writing texts that sustain strong well supported arguments. In this context it is notable that Piaget (Best & Kahn, 1986) argued that changes in human behaviour are best assessed qualitatively.
In summary, the planning phase addresses all matters of preparation, including identification of appropriate texts for work with students, both for reading and for analysis of target genres, and decisions about evaluation procedures to be adopted. Once these matters have been attended to, the teacher can proceed to the next phase of work, involving commencement of teaching, which initiates critical thinking as a theme and leads to eventual critical writing.
2.3 Phase 2: Critical thinking and critical literacy
In order to build interest in topics selected for work, and in helping to build some critical reflection, students can sometimes be consulted about the topics for examination, research and discussion, especially in a program devoted to building independent thought. Alternatively, the teacher can select a list of possible topics and invite the students to consider those they would like to explore. Such a consultative approach is based on principles of dialogic education as advocated by (i) „de-schoolers‟ (e.g. Benesch, 2001; Berlin, 1993; Freire and Shor, 1987), (ii) some genre theorists (e.g. Derewianka, 1990), and certain ESL specialists (Nunan, 1988: 2-4). In Emilia‟s study, for example, the topics included, among others: The Miss Universe Contest, Abortion, Capital Punishment, Sex
Education, Working Women, and the Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia. Those
topics were selected because they were controversial, which seemed to suit the teaching of CT, critical reading and writing. The topics of Capital Punishment, Sex Education,
Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia and the Miss Universe Contest were all current
controversial Indonesian issues at the time of the study, and they remain so. CP has always declared that “a radical and critical education has to focus on what is taking place today inside various social movements …” (Freire and Macedo, 1987: 61). Since Indonesian students are not used to being consulted about the topics they will explore, they may insist that the teacher decide. Where this occurs, the teacher should nonetheless urge the students to exercise a choice, and this may be decided on a chorus of voices. Both Emilia (2005) and Auerbach (1996, 1999) had this experience. In Emilia‟s case, the topics selected over the various phases were the Miss Universe Contest, Working Women and Capital Punishment .
2.3.1 Introducing aspects of critical thinking.
Before students commence work on their chosen topics, they should be given some direct teaching about principles of critical thinking, examining and learning about the following matters, already introduced in chapter 1:
definitions of critical thinking;
essential components and notions of CT: argument, the issue, reason (including faulty reasonings), facts and opinion;
CT standards (including aspects contributing to the soundness of arguments);
skills of CT, dispositions and abilities involved in CT (including capacity to identify fallacies in reasoning)
activities that make up CT;
the relationship between CT and CL (writing and reading), and how CT can be sharpened through reading, writing and collaboration in group work, as will be shown later.
Identification of vague words, as in: “I had a nice time yesterday”; “This book is interesting.”
The words nice and interesting are rather general and not very meaningful, and students should be advised to use more effective language.
Identification of ambiguity in statements, such as in: “He fed her dog biscuits”;
“The duck is ready to eat”. Identification of stereotypes, as in
“Women are very emotional”; “Politicians are corrupt”.
Moreover, students need to be taught expressions that suggest that opinion rather than prejudiced positions should be expressed. Thus, for example, they can use:
Modality (possibly; maybe);
Modal verbs (can, might, must, should).
Students can also use generic deictic rather than specific (e.g. Some people believe … .; the boy said… .). In addition, students can use verbal groups (e.g: It seems to be the case… ; It
appears to be true…).
This helps students recognise certainties or credible arguments and distinguish the differences between absolute statements and statements of possibility. However, it should also be explained that continued use of the above expressions can lead to the reader‟s or listener‟s doubt about the writer/speaker‟s capacity regarding the topic communicated. Most exercises to promote critical thinking should be done in groups to encourage the students to share with and learn from friends and thus to develop their CT. From the perspective of EFL, this is useful to offer opportunities for cooperative learning and real English language practice (Hyland, 1991, cited in Lunt, 2001:18) with consequent gains in language proficiency (Bejarano, 1987, cited in Lunt, 2001:18; see also Nunan and Lamb, 1996).
Students‟ CT development in this phase of the teaching program can be seen from their attempts to apply CT knowledge in their outside classroom activities, as revealed in a journal entry below:
Outside we talked about movies, etc. and since we learned how to be a critical thinker, we tried to respond to what was being discussed from several points of view and to appreciate others‟ opinion (Nuri, 31st Jan, in Emilia, 2005)
Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death…; The
journal entry above appears to show that explicit teaching of critical thinking can lead to students‟ awareness of at least some features of CT in focus.
A desirable step after CT exercises have been introduced is to involve students in group activities as the following discussion reveals.
2.3.2 Observing critical thinking (CT) in social practice
As CT is a social practice (Atkinson, 1997; Chaffee, 2000; Canagarajah, 2002), students should be encouraged to see how CT takes place in a social context. It should be made clear that one social activity to enhance CT is discussion, in which students can do the following:
Listening to each other;
Supporting their views with reasons and evidence; Responding to the points being made;
Asking and trying to answer important questions;
Trying to increase their understanding rather than simply winning the argument (Chaffee, 2000:70-73).
Assessing the strengths and accuracy of reasons and evidence in each statement made by the participants, based on several aspects, including reference to authorities, factual evidence, and personal experience (Toulmin et al, 1984; Nosich, 2001).
Assessing whether the participants “view situations from different perspectives” and “support diverse viewpoints with reasons and evidence” (Chaffee et al, 2002, Diestler, 2001; Lipman, 1991, 2003).
Assessing whether the participants in the discussion “tell the readers, or show them by providing specific details and relevant examples” (Chaffee et al, 2002: 79). This awareness is very important especially when students are to write an argumentative text. Good writers try to persuade the readers by providing specific details as exemplified below, while weak writers only tell their readers. Regarding this, the following example can be given to the students.
Telling: Michael Jordan is a great basketball player
Showing: During the 1995-1996 seasons, Michael Jordan led the NBA with a scoring average of
30.4 points per game.
That same season he ranked second on the Bulls for rebounding and assists. He was chosen for the NBA All-Star team in his first nine seasons.
He has won four league MVP awards and two Olympic medals (Chaffee et al, 2002:79).
As the core of critical thinking is arguments, students should be exposed to argumentative texts to help them develp their CT and CL, and this will be exemplified in the subsequent section.
2.3.3 Dealing with texts on argument: Developing students’ CT and CL
This activity aims to engage students in extended discussion about issues, which is a very effective means for developing the CT dispositions and the CT strategies and tactics (Norris and Ennis, 1990:150; Perkins, 1987b), introducing students to CL and encouraging them to have diverse opinions without fear of being judged wrong. Most texts used should be in English to provide students with an opportunity to learn not only the content but also the language of the texts.
The text below, about “Why own a 4WD” ( taken from Mc Gregor, 2002: 4) can be a good example for discussion because the topic and language are appropriate while the writer‟s stance is ironic and not necessarily obvious to the readers. This is useful to foster students‟ critical reading skills (Perkins, 1998, Gibbons, 2002: 82) as this kind of text allows students “to debate, to weigh and judge the writer‟s stance from the linguistic structure of the text” (Luke, O‟Brien and Comber, 1994), essential for students‟ CL development.
The text, as can be seen below uses irony, the intertextual nature of which is that that “it echoes someone else‟s utterance” (Sperber and Wilson, 1986, cited in Fairclough, 1992b: 123) and “that words can imply more than is being said, and the actual intent can be expressed in words which carry the opposite meaning” (Saxby, 1993: 70). This use of language exists in bahasa Indonesia and the students must have learnt to recognise irony in the national language while they are at school. However, as the data below will reveal, some students, even high achievers, see the text just from the surface level, though this is probably because it is an English text. Understanding ironies in a foreign language can be very hard for a student.
Thus, to help students understand the text more easily, scaffolding on cultural background knowledge may be needed to build up students‟ knowledge that is relevant to the text (Gibbons, 2002: 83). For example, such knowledge about Australians is important, particularly regarding the point that is mentioned in the text “You can pretend that you are
actually going somewhere on weekends when you‟re just going to the shops”. This point
suggests that Australians value adventurous activities, enjoy doing interesting things like a picnic than doing domestic things, driving through different country roads. Some vocabulary should also be explained, such as roos and a grate because some students might not know the meaning of these words.
Why Own a 4WD
Intelligent people know there are several good reasons why everybody should own a four-wheel drive. They are:
You pay less tax.
You can see further down the road, but those behind you can‟t see ahead at all. You can feel you are really someone when you are up above everybody else. If you crash into an ordinary car, you are less likely to be hurt.
You can pretend that you are actually going somewhere on weekends when you‟re just going to the shops.
they do.
Although there are no bulls or roos in the area, you can have a grate attached to the front of your Urban Assault Vehicle for protection against pedestrians.
Everyone knows they cost a lot.
If you reverse over someone, you won‟t notice (cited from McGregor, 2002, p. 04).
Questions regarding CL, as suggested by Wallace (1992a,b) below can be very useful to guide students in reading such a text:
Why is this topic being written about? How is this topic being written about?
What other ways of writing about the topic are there? Who is writing to whom and what is the topic?
Moreover, questions to analyse linguistic choices can be exploited, using systemic functional linguistic theory, to do with Field, Tenor and Mode. These questions are among others:
Who takes what subject positions in sentences? What types of process and participants dominate? How are active and passive constructions allocated?
What modal constructions are employed? (Cope, 2002; Fairclough, 1989; Wallace, 1992b).
Then the discussion can go on to deal with questions regarding arguments, such as those proposed by Mc Gregor (2002:4) below:
What do you think is the writer‟s contention or stance on the issue of 4 WDs? In what ways does the letter support this stance?
According to the writer, what attitude do 4WD owners have to other people? Which statement suggests this attitude?
Imagine you are a 4WD owner. Would this argument annoy or upset you? Why or why not? If you think it would annoy you, which particular statements, words, or phrases, would have this
effect. Why?
Why do you think the writer uses the phrase „Urban Assault Vehicle”? Is the use of this phrase a hyperbole or irony?
This letter is an example of an implied point of view which readers gather from reading the piece. The writer‟s stance is not stated. Why do you think the writer chose to present the argument in this form?
As Emilia‟s (2005) study shows, the students given the text on 4WD could generally answer all the questions above, but tensions can emerge due to variations in students‟ opinion, as shown in the following dialogue:
Teacher : What do you think of the stance of the writer on 4 WD?
Wati : (high achiever and articulate): I think he agrees with 4 WD and he mentions the benefits