Language Use in the Source Text and the Two Target Texts

The analysis in this section answers the following questions: What particular language use is indicated by stage directions and dialogue? Which functions does dialect use fulfil in original and TTs? Comparison of the language use of ST and TTs enables me

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Translation: “The young people are not trained actors and standard German is a foreign language for them. The directness of the play is interrupted if the text has to go through the head first. The same is true for the audience. With dialect we can create a more direct connection to head and heart.”

117 to show changes in meaning due to the two different approaches to dialect translation. Analysis of dialect use in the original reveals intentional use for characterisation. The detailed discussion of dialect use in the Swiss German TT demonstrates that once the decision to translate into dialect is taken, the choice of dialects is by no means arbitrary, but motivated by the following: to support the narrative device of road movie, to portray the diversity of German-speaking Switzerland, and for characterisation. As such, the use of dialect contributes to the meaning of the play.

Passing Places

A play text may refer to the language use of a particular character or the whole cast in two main ways: the stage directions and the dialogue. Stage directions are not available in the actual performance but indicate to the actors and director how a particular character should act, move, speak. However, the list of characters and a short summary of the plot may be printed in the programme and, thus, accessible to the audience. The dialogue may convey the language use of a character either directly, i.e. by his or her actual speech as expressed through phonetic spelling, grammar, lexis, or indirectly, by the reaction of other characters.

In Passing Places the author utilises all of these indicators to differing extents.85 The play is set in Scotland which may be a first indication as to language use by particular characters, especially if taking into account a tradition of the use of Scots dialects in Scottish theatre. The list of characters does not mention language use – particular accents or dialects – for any of the characters. However, some of the characters have their origins attached (Greenhorn 1998b: 2):

BINKS, Motherwell gangster

KID, Motherwell delinquent

IONA, Canadian geologist

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At Scottish theatres, the audience is commonly provided with a programme, sometimes free of charge, which contains a short summary of (part of) the plot and the production team including list of characters. In addition, the Traverse Theatre often offers the play script for sale. Even if the spectators do not read or browse either before the start of the performance, they will have, in most cases, read about the play they are about to watch in reviews, theatre programmes or leaflets. Thus, there is a strong possibility that audience members will have a general idea about time and place of action, characters and plot.

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SERGE, French sculptor

DIESEL, English traveller

MO, Cornish surfer

(Greenhorn 1998b: 2)

As the list is usually printed in the programme it gives the audience an impression of the geographic, and, in the case of Binks and Kid, possibly the social background. It is also a signal to the director and actors to express, say, the Canadian-ness, French-ness etc. by linguistic means, i.e. the use or particular regional dialects or accents and sociolects.

In the list of characters, the main characters – Alex, Brian and Mirren – are not given localities. However, in the script (Greenhorn 1998b: 3), the first word by Alex – “Motherwell” – establishes the setting of the play and the first two scenes that Alex and Brian live and work there. Mirren enters only in Scene 19 but establishes immediately her background as Scottish, and possibly Paisley near Glasgow:

MIRREN: Mirren.

BRIAN: That’s a nice name. Is it Gaelic?

MIRREN: No. My dad chose it. He’s from Paisley. Big football fan. (Greenhorn 1998b: 22)86

Taken together, these indicators point at a language use close to Glaswegian for the three main characters.

In addition, the language use of Brian, Alex and Mirren is expressed by linguistic means through the repeated use of Scotticisms – ‘aye’ (yes) and ‘wee’ (small, little). Alex uses these words most frequently, especially in the first eighteen scenes. The choice of these particular words is probably because they are the most widely and immediately recognisable as Scottish. Brian also uses them less frequently and Mirren least. In addition, Alex and Brian use words like ‘kyle’ (narrow strait or arm of the sea or narrow part of the river) and ‘oxter’ (armpit). The difference in intensity/frequency of use of Scotticisms may be for a number of reasons. Brian uses less Scotticisms implying that he is slightly better educated, an assumption indicated

86 _{Stage directions have been removed. They are included whenever they form the focus of the analysis}

119 by his frequent visits to the library, his ability to quote literary figures, his interest in crossword puzzles, and his almost philosophical discussions with Alex who finds them irritating. The use of Scotticisms reduces in the second half of the play which may be because having been established the intensity is no longer needed. This would also explain why Mirren uses Scotticisms less – she enters first in Scene 19, by which time general language use has been established.

The fourth main character, Binks, the “Motherwell gangster” (Greenhorn 1998b: 2) uses Scots more extensively than any other character. He use specific Scots lexis – ‘aye’, ‘wee’, ‘sook’ (suck) but also Scots pronunciation and grammar – ‘mibbe’ (maybe), ‘fae’ (for), ‘havnae’ (have not), ‘cannae’ (cannot), ‘doesnae’ (does not) ‘no’ (not). Binks’ characterisation through language use goes beyond the mimetic function of defining the regional background as with Alex, Brian and Mirren. Binks’ use of Scots implies his social background as a small town criminal. A gruesome character who attacks and kills people wilfully, he is also a comic figure expressed through the contrast of actions and speech in monologues and interactions with other characters. Scene 25 demonstrates how Binks’ use of Scots contributes to his characterisation:

BINKS is phoning home.

BINKS. No… No ma… Fort William… Aye, Glen Coe was lovely…, no, I’m

not taking any pictures… I’m not on holiday, ma, it’s a business trip… What?... Aye, alright I’ll try and remember… but… look… I haven’t got time

to look for one wi a Highland Cow on it!... Sorry… No, I didn’t mean to shout… aye, alright… Look, I have tae go… tae Inverness… Aye, ye go along the loch… What?... But they’re just stories ma… There’s no really anything… Alright, okay. I’ll keep an eye out… Right. I have tae go. Cheerio.

He hangs up.

BINKS. What is she like…

[highlighted Scotticisms – JR] (Greenhorn 1998b: 30)

The scene derives its comedy from the contrast between Binks seen as the brutal, violent gangster (established in the previous scenes) and the meek, humble little boy as he speaks to his mother; he listens to her, even if reluctantly. The use of Scottish lexis, pronunciation and grammar in the scene is more intense than in scenes where

120 Binks communicates with others. The discussion in Chapter Two revealed that dialect speakers are more likely to speak in dialect in informal situations, with friends and family as here, with Binks’ language use expressing the close relationship between mother and son. That the individuality and funniness of characters are often expressed by their use of dialect probably contributed to the choice of language variation by Greenhorn.

The regional/national origin of some of the minor characters is described in character list: Serge is French, Iona Canadian, Diesel English and Mo from Cornwall. In the case of Serge, Iona and Diesel, the specific language use is expressed and referred to in the dialogue. Before the audience meets Serge he is referred to as a “weird French bloke” by Diesel (Greenhorn 1998b: 14). In addition, Serge uses French phrases such as “mon dieu” and “ça va” (43), “pas de problème” and “bon” (44), or “merde” (52), establishing the character’s national background. Also, the spelling of “one” as “wan” (44) suggests to the actor that he should speak with a French accent.

Iona’s use of American English is indicated not by her own use of specific lexis or grammar but by the reaction of others:

MIRREN introduces IONA. IONA. Hi!

ALEX. You’re American! IONA. Canadian.

ALEX. Oh.

(Greenhorn 1998b: 33)

In order for Alex to realise that Iona is actually American/Canadian she has to speak with an American accent.

Unless the audience reads the character list, the only way for them to learn about Diesel’s background is by the way he speaks, in Standard English without any Scotticism. The director and actor will let Diesel speak in standard or colloquial English to make his regional background clear. Mo’s regional background is established in the character list, although not in the way her dialogue is written which is standard. We know because Shaper tells Brian and Alex (and the audience) that Mo is from Cornwall (Greenhorn 1998b: 73). Director and actor may decide to make her

121 regional background more immediate by letting Mo speak with a West-Country accent.

Expressing the regional/national background of these four characters fulfils an important aspect of the major theme of the play. The main characters, Alex and Brian, go on an expedition in their own country discovering it is full of people from all over the world who made their home in Scotland. Thus, the play conveys a picture of Scotland different from the Scottishness prevalent in previous decades which focused on traditions, cultural and political differences to England. If all characters of the play spoke in the same language variety this intention of the playwright would not be established as vividly as by using subtly language variation to convey the characters’ background. Therefore the playwright gives clear signals to director and actors on how he wants the characters to speak.

The remaining minor characters convey to varying extents their regional and social background through their language use. Kid, the “Motherwell delinquent” (Greenhorn 1998b: 2) uses both youth slang (“Cool the beans, pal,” 4) and Scotticisms (“a wee wave,” 4) defining age, regional and social background. Instead of “police”, Alex’s mum says “polis” (11), a pronunciation most common in Western parts of Scotland and in Glasgow, confirming her and Alex’s Motherwell origin. The Lollipop Lady in Fort William conveys Scottishness through the use of such words as “aye”, “och”, “ya” and “ye” (28). The speech of Tom, Mirren’s father, is in standard except for one “aye” (65). Mirren tells us he comes from Paisley, a small town near Glasgow (22). There are two possible reasons for the relatively neutral language use by Tom: the playwright relies on the director and actors to decide on the language variety to be spoken by Tom; or, the standard use is an expression of Tom’s education (university degree) and work (software designer for US companies). This would also explain the relatively little use of Scotticisms by his daughter. Having grown up in an academic family and graduated with a first class honours degree from university, Mirren is very likely to speak in standard or with only a slight accent. The Pump Hand near Wick using “aye” and “och” (Greenhorn 1998b: 58) and mentioning the lack of changes in the area since decimalisation implies that he is local or has lived there for at least thirty years. Together these indications suggest to actor and director a specific Scots language use.

The rest of the minor characters are less defined through their language use. The Two Youths who ransack Binks’ sports shop say very little and that in standard,

122 as does the Quiz Master. However, they are likely to be local and director and actors may decide to give them Scottish accents. On his way north, Binks encounters a Boy near the Loch Ness Monster Exhibition in Drumnadrochit, Gunn who works on the road works in Inverness and a Lady Walker at John O’Groats. The dialogue of all three is written in standard which can be interpreted in different ways. Either they are English visitors who have come to Scotland for tourism (Boy and Lady Walker) or work (Gunn); or their linguistic characterisation is not vital for the theme so that the playwright left the decision to the director and/or actors. The same may apply for the standard language use of Shaper, the “mystic surf guru” (Greenhorn 1998b: 2).

To sum up, the use of Scots lexis, grammar and pronunciation by the characters in Passing Places is indicated through stage directions, i.e. in the character list, and through dialogue, i.e. in the way a character speaks and/or what other characters say about his/her background, origin or language use. The same is true for the Canadian, French and English characters. The level of language variation as signalled by Scots lexis, grammar and phonetic spelling varies considerably and covers a spectrum between Standard English (Diesel, Shaper, Mo, First and Second Youth, Quiz Master, Small Boy, Gunn, Lady Walker and Barman) via a few incidences of Scots features by Tom, Mirren, Alex’s mum, Kid, and a noticeable amount by Alex, Brian, Lollipop Lady, to relatively extensive use of Scots features (Binks). The differing levels and consistency of Scots language use for each character suggest that the author intentionally varied the language to define each character individually (idiolect) implying their regional as well as social background. The aim of this variation was to facilitate the understanding of a major theme of the play – the diversity of Scottishness, of Scottish contemporary life. Binks’ use of Scots is most pronounced, contributing to his characterisation as a comic figure.

The use of Scots dialects in Greenhorn’s Passing Places is possible for the following reasons: Scots dialects in contemporary Scotland have relatively high prestige (in comparison with English dialects in England), and are used in both public and private oral domains. The tradition of dialect use in Scottish and translated literature is many centuries old for poetry and for drama more than seventy years. The use of Scots on Scottish stages has become accepted by audiences and is a common if not expected feature.

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The Target Texts

Geister chose to translate Greenhorn’s play into colloquial German, not dialect(s), for two major reasons: the production took place in a town which does not have any distinct local and/or regional dialects; and to use dialects she felt she would have had to relocate the setting of the play to Germany. She chose colloquial language because she perceived the original as a youth play with teenage characters. The junges theater

in Basle produces all plays in Swiss German, so the play setting and action were relocated to Switzerland. Standard German is a foreign language for both the young amateur actors and the audience; access to characters and the play are easier in Swiss German, the language of everyday oral communication. Thus, the choice of language (varieties) for the TT in both translations is based on the situation in the target culture rather than a desire to simulate the language used in the ST.

Surfing Scotland

Compared to the original, references to the language use of individual characters is more sparse. Being a very close translation of the ST, Surfing Scotland retains indications of language use in the stage directions, in particular references to background and origin in the character list:

BINKS, ein Gangster aus Motherwell, einem Vorort von Glasgow KID, Kleinkrimineller aus Motherwell

IONA, eine kanadische Geologin SERGE, ein französischer Bildhauer DIESEL, ein englischer Traveller MO, Surferin aus Cornwall (Greenhorn 2000a: n. pag.)

The addition of “einem Vorort von Glasgow” for Binks, i.e. “a suburb of Glasgow”, which is not provided in the original helps the German audience to locate the place as it is more likely they will have heard of Glasgow than of Motherwell. Also the references in the dialogue to the origin of particular characters are retained: Diesel

124 refers to Serge as a “verrückten Franzosen”, i.e. a “crazy Frenchman” (Greenhorn 2000a: 14); Shaper says about Mo “Aus Cornwall” (45); and after Iona introduces herself, Alex exclaims in surprise “Du bist Amerikanerin!” (19). When it comes to the indication of language use in the dialogue through linguistic means, however, several strategies are used. French lexis in the ST for Serge is retained so that his speech on stage makes clear immediately where Serge is from. The differences between Scottish, English and Canadian characters in the original are expressed through the contrast between particular Scots lexis, pronunciation and grammar, and Standard English. This contrast is lost completely by Geister. The dialogue of all characters is written in standard and contains, to differing extents, colloquial lexis and phrases: Alex, Brian, Binks, Mirren, Kid and Alex’s mother use a considerable number of colloquialisms. Diesel, Second Youth and Shaper use a few colloquial expressions; less so Serge and Pump Hand. The dialogue of the rest of the characters is written in standard. The title suggests that the play is about Scotland and Scottish people. That not all characters are in actual fact from Scotland is obscured considerably by the neutralisation of the contrast between standard and Scots. Only Serge’s, Mo’s and Iona’s background is made clear explicitly through references by other characters, and in Serge’s case through actual language use.

The use of colloquial language seems natural as none of the situations are formal and require standard. Its function, according to Geister, is to express the language use of young people, teenagers. In contrast, the speech of older characters like Tom, Quiz Master, Lollipop Lady, Pump Hand, Barkeeper and Lady Walker are written in standard. However, the rendering of age through the contrast between colloquial and standard is not consistent – Alex’s mum uses colloquial language and so does Binks. On the other hand, First Youth and Iona speak in standard.

In addition to the translation of Scots into standard (with colloquialisms), Geister introduces specific language features not there in the original: Anglicisms, used in particular by the main characters Alex, Brian and Mirren, but also by Kid, Tom, Shaper, Second Youth, Barman and Binks. The use of English by these characters conveys their non-German-ness, but not their Scottish-ness.87 Also, the use of Anglicisms defines the age of the characters: it is young people in contemporary