With explicit mention or only by pre-supposition, the paradigm of transpolingualism provides the reader with the tool by which to identify “less visible” linguistic variations within the fiction.
a) With mention
As argued under the peregrinism section, most of the énoncés in Une si longue lettre consist of plain literal translation from Wolof to French. Contrary to Dangarembga or Chinua Achebe, Mariama Ba does not mention explicitely which languages her characters use. Despite the strong presence of Arabic and Wolof xenisms, readers would have to pay close attention to the enunciation context of each character so as to determine whether or not they could have expressed themselves in the French of the narration. Some
characteristics we identified as indicative of oral discourse—consequently of Wolof original expressions—are the use of proverbs, or repetitions, not to mention a language filled with imagery. The only close cases of transpolingualism with mention in Une si longue lettre are the instances where the narrator alludes to Koranic verses being played.
b) By pre-supposition
The differentiating element between peregrinism and transpolingualism by pre- supposition is whether or not the locutors in question had access to the knowledge of the French language. In Une si longue lettre, Wolof in transpolingualism is used to carry daily routine conversations between characters of all genders irrespective of their levels of education. In their majority, proverbs and riddles are typical or original Wolof utterances even if the narrator does not specifically name the language in question. When Aissatou announces her intention to file for divorce, the language she uses becomes very metaphoric and the content of the message finds its relevance only in the Wolof culture. She states, “Je me dépouille de ton amour, de ton nom. Vêtue du seul habit valuable de la dignité, je poursuis ma route” (62).136 Likewise, when the Fall family griot uses a proverb to magnify and celebrate the fact that Mawdo finally married and had offspring with the Young Nabou, a woman who belongs to the same caste as he does, the language is rightly so pre-supposed to have been in an original Wolof; “le sang est retourné à sa source” (61).137
136 “I am stripping myself of your love, your name. Clothed in my dignity, the only worthy garment, I go my way” (32).
In the same vein, when Farmata, another griot, addresses Ramatoulaye about her refusal to marry Daouda Dieng, the pre-supposed language is Wolof. She yelled, “Bissimilai! Bissimilai! […] Pour qui te prends-tu? A cinquante ans! tu as osé casser le wollore” (134).138
Her discourse is not only filled with Wolof xenisms, but most of what she says finds its meaning in Wolof tradition and culture. The form of her language is grammatically faulty and the content makes reference to a special kind of friendship anchored in Wolof culture.
When Tamsir, Mawdo Ba and the Imam visited Ramatoulaye to inform her that her husband had taken a second wife, the pre-supposed language is also Wolof; not only because is it the common language to everyone that was involved in the conversation, but their speeches bear most of the markers of oral discourse we identified with Walter Ong. Here is part of their exchanges:
“Quand Allah tout puissant met côte-à côte deux etres, personne n’y peut rien.”
“Oui, oui, appuyèrent les autres.” “Dans ce monde, rien n’est nouveau.”
“Oui, oui, renchérirent encore les autres.” (71)139
138
“Bissimilai! Bissimilai! […] Who do you take yourself for? At fifty, you have dared to break the wolere”
(69). 139
“There is nothing one can do when Allah the almighty puts two people side by side.” “True, true,” said the other two in support.
“[…] There is nothing new in this world”
A cautionary note however would be not to reduce original Wolof utterances exclusively to énoncés from people who have not frequented the French school. The conversation between Ramatoulaye and Daouda Dieng, two obviously educated people,140 is here argued to have been carried out in Wolof because of the number of repetitions contained therein. With his additive speech inquiring about her and her children’s health, Daouda Dieng speaks to Ramatoulaye in a way very reminiscent of Wolof rhythm (“Comment vas-tu? Et les enfants, ton Assemblée? Et Ousmane?”(125)).141 Likewise, the exchange on the conditions of women in a newly independent country with a budding democracy which struggles to give women the place they deserve, is assumed to have been done in an original (exclusively or partially) Wolof énoncés.
As far as Arabic is concerned, it is mostly through prayers and recordings that the language is represented in the novel. From the narrator to the characters, Arabic is indeed used only sporadically, in a very isolated fashion that does not allow meaningful exchanges.
B-Nervous Conditions
All throughout Nervous Conditions, Dangarembga uses both English and Shona to address a wide range of topics. With a variety of narrator-characters, the fiction addresses issues as diverse as agriculture and herding, history, religion and politics; not to forget gender inequalities within the Shona culture.
140 A teacher and a Member of Parliament respectively.