le Carre, Call For the Dead, 155.

10 Gordon Corera, M I6 : Life and Death in the British Secret Service (London: Phoenix, 2012), 238. 11 Alan Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture in Postwar Britain (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), 77. 12 Sinfield, Literature, 299.

13 Corera, M I6 Life, p .244; Philip Levene, 'Escape in Tim e', The Avengers (series 5) Directed by John Krish. United Kingdom: ITV/ABC/Thames, 2 8 /0 1 /1 9 6 7 .

The Jigsaw Man and The Fourth Protocol as well as the work of John Le Carre who

knew Kim Philby when they worked together in SIS.14

The context of the early Cold War period is important when understanding betrayal. There are links to be made with the place that Britain occupied on the world stage, due in part to its collapsing empire and its decision to form a special relationship with America after the Second World War rather than pursue closer relations with mainland Europe.15 The relationship with the Americans and the impact betrayal has on it is highlighted for much of the Cold War and reflected in espionage fiction. It is particularly present in the novels of the 1960s and 1970s which portrayed the British intelligence services as the 'poorer cousins' to the Americans who pity their British allies for trying to show that they are still viable partners, even though they have been at the centre of several defection scandals.

The fiction during this period also uses betrayal as a key plot device in order to ask moral questions about spying and intelligence organisations. Towards the end of the Cold War this focus on morality continued with the work of Len Deighton and John le Carre. Both authors began to examine the insider view of betrayal, writing novels which gave a voice to traitors or allowed the perspective and motivation of a traitor to be showcased. As Dudley Jones notes, the focus in Deighton and le Carre's work shifts from the external enemy to the enemy within.16 This shift created a more complex idea of betrayal and could be connected to the rise in defectors to the West

14 Jo Eisinger, The Jigsaw M an Directed by Terence Young. United Kingdom: Evangrove, Nitemeg, 1983; Frederick Forsyth, The Fourth Protocol {first published: London: Hutchinson, 1984). 15 Peter Hennessy, Having it so Good: Britain in the Fifties (London: Penguin, 2007), 471-75.

16 Dudley Jones, 'The Great Game? The Spy Fiction of Len Deighton,' in Spy Thrillers. From Buchan to Le Carre (ed.) Clive Bloom (London: Macmillan, 1990), 101.

during this period and the ambiguous role these figures played by betraying their own country for the sake of the West.

There are three areas of impact when examining betrayal and the fact-fiction relationship. First the identification of the enemy. This changed over time as the threats to the Western World and intelligence services changed. Betrayal highlights who constitutes the enemy, who should be feared or watched and ultimately who can be trusted in this fight against them. Over the course of the 20th century this changed from Germany and its Allies to the Soviet Union and the countries behind the Iron Curtain. However, betrayal can also cloud who the enemy is, particularly when it comes to the paranoia of organisations fearing a betrayal so much that they hunt for a non-existent mole. As security correspondent and author Gordon Corera notes;

Perhaps the only thing worse than having a mole is the fear of having a mole. The CIA was left emasculated governed by a fear that the enemy was inside its walls, watching its every move and pulling the strings behind its every move.17

The above quote from Allen Dulles also hints at the idea that betrayal within an organisation is an emasculating experience for those who work within it, robbing them of agency and clarity of trust. Betrayal can have far more of an effect on men than on women because of the way intelligence organisations are constructed around a masculine hierarchy.

The second is deviance or lifestyle choices; a personal dimension discussing challenges to socially acceptable norms. This is where we see attitudes to adultery,

homosexuality, sexuality issues in general, pregnancy and abortion. All of these areas were used as bargaining or blackmail tools in order to force people to pass information.

Thirdly there is moral complexity. Betrayal creates a grey area in moral terms as somebody has decided to play both sides and thus occupy the role of both friend and enemy. We can see some grey areas explored in the media through the information that is present in newspapers or cartoons. However, it is only through fiction that we can see the moral complexities of moles and defectors explored fully as the authors offer them a voice. People's own opinions of betrayal are often black and white. For traitors such as Kim Philby or George Blake in the 1960s betrayal was a clear decision between the Soviet Union and the West and the information that they passed left them with no moral qualms as they believed that they were supporting the correct side. Le Carre and Deighton expanded this idea of moral complexity and grey areas by including the voice of the traitor in novels. This allowed the motivations, desires and fears of traitors to be presented and created a grey area of possible sympathy for readers.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War the role betrayal occupies in fiction changed, but with the threat of national betrayal and defection taken away, personal betrayal made a return. We can see this in the Bond films of the late 1990s which all incorporated a personal betrayal. The television series

Spooks in the early 2000s also showcased this side of betrayal with several series

dealing with betrayal by a colleague and the after effects of this on the organisation. These personal betrayals are always shocking as there appears to be an acceptance