Learner Differences, Learning Styles and Cooperative Working Arrangements

It is generally accepted that some differences can be measured in ways that usefully divide students into categories which are useful for informing the instructional design process [130], these categories include:

• Prior Knowledge: Measuring a student’s prior knowledge is a relatively common

occurrence, with attainment tests, rankings and groupings frequently undertaken in formal education [2].

• Motivation: A student’s desire to learn about a particular topic or concept may already exist

before they enrol on a course of academic study, or may be developed by instructors and educational resources in the course of academic study. However so developed, it is important that educators provide opportunities for motivated students to engage in learning activities which further a student’s understanding and help develop their knowledge of a given subject.

• Learning Ability: Measuring a student’s propensity to learn is a relatively common

undertaking, with standardised achievement and IQ tests being used to predict performance in typical educational settings [130]. However, the validity of such tests is not universally acknowledged, with their bias towards verbal and mathematical ability being questioned [131].

• Demographics: Population defining features such as age, gender, race, educational

attainment and profession are often cited as factors that influence learning [132-134], with some demographic features relating to levels of prior knowledge, motivation, communication preferences and other cultural and social influences which may shape the learning experience of a particular student.

Within an educational setting it is important that these types of learner differences are considered. However, a practical approach needs to be adopted: it is infeasible for an educational resource to fully adapt to the needs of all learners all of the time. Given this it is important that learners feel able to satisfy their own needs by utilising the resources available to them.

Learning style refers to the way a student acquires new knowledge: for example, some students may adopt a book based approach, researching theories about a specific phenomena before progressing to see it in action, whilst others may focus more heavily on the specific examples of the phenomena in action before working out ways in which the theories can be generalised and applied in a wider context. Within the educational community there is little work involved in the measurement of learning styles and the extent to which they are employed in the wider population [130]. However, several well known taxonomies have been proposed by Carver [135], Larkin-Hein [136], Danielson [137] and Chen [138] which go some way to identifying and categorising these style differences.

In order to account for differences in learning styles, it is important for a learning environment to support multiple modes of interaction, with learners able to engage with the interface most suited to their learning approach. This implies that it is therefore beneficial for a learning environment to provide multiple interfaces which appeal to different methods of learning: for example, textual, graphical etc.

2.5.4 Summary

This section has discussed the impact that the introduction of 3D technologies may have on the way in which technology is used to support the teaching and learning process. Affecting the way in which learning materials are presented and the way in which learners can interact with them, the introduction of 3D technologies makes provision for the introduction of support for the higher order learning behaviours of application, analysis and evaluation, all of which are poorly supported in existing technological frameworks.

In addition, 3D technologies make it possible to establish alternative means through which to motivate learners, with a sense of presence and collaboration located at the heart of 3D multi-user virtual environment technologies. By extending existing technological frameworks, existing methods of personalisation can be incorporated into 3D technologies, thereby allowing learning resources to be designed to more accurately meet the needs of different types of learners. Furthermore, given that 3D technologies provide the opportunity for alternative methods of presentation of learning materials, the possibility of providing multiple interfaces into the same learning materials becomes possible. In this way, learners can pick and choose the way in which they interact with learning materials based on their personal preferences or individual learning styles.

2.6 Chapter Summary

This chapter has presented a detailed discussion of the learning process and the theories of Bloom and others which are used to inform the approaches adopted by educators. The importance of encouraging higher order learning behaviours is noted, with a number areas in which technology can be used to assist in the learning process highlighted.

A class of disciplines is identified in which significant barriers exist which effectively prevent learners from engaging in application, analysis and evaluation behaviours. Furthermore, limitations in the support provided to these disciplines by existing educational software are identified. Without the ability to use technologies to mediate higher order learning behaviours, the extent to which effective teaching and learning can occur is naturally limited owing to the limited real world access available to learners.

To determine ways in which this issue can be addressed, a close examination of existing pedagogical approaches is undertaken. As part of this analysis, the chapter examines the relationship between the process of teaching and learning and relates it to the way in which people learn. As an outcome of this analysis, the ability to apply knowledge is identified as key component to enabling higher order learning behaviours.

A series of five desirable properties which we believe learning technologies should support have been identified, with the extent to which existing technologies provide support considered:

• Learner Engagement.

• Personalisation.

• Groupwork and Collaborative Working Practices.

• Realism.

• Accessibility.

As part of the technical analysis, the focus of existing educational technologies is identified, as are shortcomings in this approach which make it difficult for the technologies to be extended to provide support for higher order learning behaviours. In order to address these deficiencies and provide support for educators to position learners at the centre of a learning exchange in which they can apply their skills and knowledge, the use of 3D technologies is proposed.

The feasibility of the adoption of 3D technologies is considered, with specific reference being made to Moore’s Law and the way in which computing resources improve exponentially over time. Through

this evaluation it is determined that it is presently feasible for general purpose computers to be used to power 3D technologies, with any short term accessibility issues being resolved over time as further enhancements in computing capabilities filter down to end users. In considering how existing educational technologies can be enhanced through the addition of 3D virtual environment technologies, an archaeological excavation is used as a case study which demonstrates enhancements to the learning process that 3D technologies are able to provide.