Donna Hannaway University of South Africa Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The role of technology in learning has great importance today as the world is being transformed by digital technologies at an expeditious rate. With this in mind it was increasingly important to question how these changes have influenced Foundation Phase learners and especially their experiences of Technology-based Learning (TbL). Qualitative case study research methods such as photo voice, narratives and field notes were conducted with 10 grade 3 learners at two technology-rich schools in Gauteng and examined through a conceptual framework which included the TPACK framework, generation theory and the learning theory of inter alia connectivism. Data was interpreted according to the main elements of the theoretical framework, namely technology, pedagogy and content in relation to the research themes of technological tools, 21st century skills and TbL. Finally, the significance of this study was that the data gathered proved worthwhile in understanding Foundation Phase learners in context which accounts for inferences to be made from the phenomenon of TbL to all stakeholders involved in Foundation Phase education.
Keywords: Technology-based learning (TbL), Digital literacy, Foundation Phase learners, generation theory, Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK)
Introduction
Technology in this age is ubiquitous and is changing the way that individuals live, work and play. In line with this, South African education has to change regularly to meet the requirements set out by the Department of Education, including the development of learning outcomes for the 21st century which recognise learners to use information in particular contexts (Department of Education [DOE], 2001; Law & Chow, 2008b in Leendertz, Blignaut, Niewoudt, Els & Ellis, 2013, p1). According to Maaga (2009, p1), the early childhood phase of birth to nine years of age is the most crucial phase for every human being. The Foundation Phase of formal education incorporates these years and ensures that quality early learning provides children with the best possible start in life. A firm learning foundation in the Foundation Phase presupposes attention to, as well as understanding of cohort in which the new young learners find themselves.
Furthermore, Weiler (2004, p46) suggests that, “it may be that academe, and indeed the entire world, is currently in the middle of a massive and wide-ranging shift in the way knowledge is disseminated and learned.” Prensky (2001) states that neurobiology and social psychology have proved that various kinds of technological stimulation actually alter brain structures and affect the way people think. More recently, the same author stated that “technology, rather, is an extension of our brains; it's a new way of thinking. It's the solution we humans have created to deal with our difficult new context of variability, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity” (Prensky, 2013, p22). In line with Prensky, the generation theory (Strauss & Howe, 1991; 1997) explains how the era in which a person is born affects their view of the world and predicts behaviour and expectations. Since the children of today are being
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Proceedings socialised in a vastly different way, this study provides valuable insight regarding the manner in which the present day generation of Foundation Phase learners learn from a South African educational research perspective
This study explored the use of technology as a tool for learning in the Foundation Phase through learners’ experiences thereof, specifically the aspects that influenced young children’s learning. The paper was guided by the following main research question:
What are learners’ experiences of technology-based learning in the Foundation Phase? The investigation into the phenomenon of TbL in the Foundation phase was further supported by the subsequent secondary research question:
What is the ‘technological profile’ of Foundation Phase learners? Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of this study comprised of learning theories that are applicable to TbL, the generation theory and TPACK framework which are briefly discussed below.
Learning theories
Researchers and educational psychologists have proposed a number of learning theories over the past century in order to explain individuals’ acquisition of knowledge (Shulman & Quinlan, 1996). Theories have been classified according to different paradigms with the main ones used in education being classified as cognitivist, behaviourist, constructivist, humanist or descriptive metatheories (Pound, 2011). For the purpose of this study, only learning theories that are founded in a constructivist and behaviourist paradigm as well as connectivism will be discussed, due to their relevance to the digital era. Behaviourism has been used to describe complex learning circumstances and is grounded in the central idea that a response occurs from a certain stimulus (Pritchard, 2008). From a constructivist stance (Piaget, 1952) believed that learning comes from the child alone with knowledge being constructed through their interaction with the environment. Vygotsky (1999), elaborated on Piaget’s work by stating that children construct knowledge in a challenging environment with the help of a more skilled adult or peer. However, Siemens (2005) argued that connectivism is the more contemporary and more suitable learning theory since the pace of change is so rapid in today’s world that extended expertise requires continuous learning (and unlearning) of the vast amounts of knowledge over a lifetime which can no longer be contained within the mind of a single individual, and instead is now better stored and processed through technology.
Weegar and Pacis (2012) advocate that blending the two theories, behaviourism and constructivism since they can be used in combination with educational technologies seems to be a preferred approach to TbL. Additionally teaching and learning needs to be transformative and trans-disciplinary in the 21st century and to this end, connectivism is especially conducive in understanding the use of digital technology for learning (Mishra, Koehler & Henrikson, 2011).
Generation theory
Archaic societies, philosophers and even the Hebrew Bible point towards the generations to explain how and why recurring archetypes occur (Strauss & Howe, 1997, p. 14-15). “A generation, in turn, is the aggregate of all people born over roughly the span of a phase of life who share a common location in history and, hence, a common collective persona” (Strauss
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Proceedings & Howe, 1997, p. 16). Codrington and Grant-Marshall (2011, p. 12) defined a generation as “a group of people with a set of shared experiences that exhibit a shared worldview, and continue to exhibit the characteristics of that worldview until they grow up through life.” Furthermore, these authors explained that it has become significant to use the notion of generation identity to understand each new generation since time and events are quickening.
Strauss and Howe (1991) explained a generation cycle by consecutive 20 year cohorts, in a four stage process of history spanning roughly 80 years. The generation archetypes were since renamed in The Fourth Turning (Strauss & Howe, 1997), where Idealist became Prophet, Reactive became Nomad, Civic became Hero and Adaptive became Artist. The importance of the above mentioned is to highlight the nature of the generation theory, as well as its inevitable application to this study in terms of classifying current learners as Artist archetypes and explain the reason for the similarities and differences between the generations involved in teaching and learning in the Foundation Phase.
TPACK framework
Shulman (1986) introduced the notion of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) which went beyond knowledge of subject matter only and included knowledge about how particular content can be taught. Within the context of a technological environment, Koehler and Mishra (2005) recreated Shulman’s idea of PCK to represent the concept of technological pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK). Hence, there are three primary constituents for learning with technology - content, pedagogy and technology - and the interaction between these bodies of knowledge are essential to the framework (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). At the centre of the framework is the interaction of all three bodies of knowledge known as technological pedagogical content and knowledge. TPACK essentially consist of seven knowledge areas, which are outlined in the Figure 1. For the purpose of this study and in line with Agyei and Keengwe, (2014) it is essential to pay attention to the specific context in of TbL particularly when using TPACK.
Figure 1: Conceptual framework
To understand the context of learners currently in Foundation Phase, the conceptual framework above was used since these principles, in theory and practice, produced “flexible
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Proceedings knowledge” that was needed to investigate TbL in the Foundation Phase (Koehler & Mishra, 2009, p. 60; Koehler, Mishra & Cain, 2013, p 13). For the purpose of this paper, only aspects pertaining to TbL, and which minimize teaching, are important.
Methods
Research design
Data were collected at two technology-rich research sites. This study sought to understand the Grade 3 learners’ learning environment since “the social world consists of and is constructed through meanings” (Livesey, 2006, p. 4). The prime motivation was to take a social view by examining learners’ everyday interactions in their natural environment of their classroom. Furthermore, Nieuwenhuis (2007) explained that within the interpretivist paradigm, human behaviour is affected by knowledge of the social world, which emphasises a two-way relationship between theory and research. Regarding the methodology of the study, the theoretical was linked to the empirical by means of a qualitative case approach to conduct and interpret a multifaceted study. The use of TbL was explored based on the assumption that it will be useful to know the distinguishing features of this cohort.
Ethical considerations
In line with the ethical regulations of the institution overseeing this study, the participants and their parents were asked for their informed assent and consent respectively which guaranteed safety in participation as well as no risk or harm of any kind. Participation was voluntary and participants were able to withdraw from the study at any time. Approval from an ethics committee was granted before this study commenced.
Trustworthiness
In relation to this study, trustworthiness was addressed through a “…constant search for convergence among multiple and different sources of information…” (Nieuwenhuis, 2007, p81) which accompanied the researcher’s attempt to remain impartial and enhance the trustworthiness of the data by establishing the truth through the use of numerous data collection processes. Furthermore, the data gathering process was triangulated by obtaining photographs, narratives and field notes.
Data collection
Qualitative research uses a naturalistic approach that seeks to understand phenomena in context-specific settings, such as Grade 3 learners in South African schools, which presents a "real world setting [where] the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon of interest" (Patton, 2001, p. 39). Several types of information such as photo voice, narratives and field notes were collected in order to answer the question and establish the complexity of TbL. The three phases of data collection are delineated below:
Table 1: Phases for data collection