Learning defined

From time to time, many researchers of education have tried to define learning. However, as a result of the differing objectives, foci, intended outcomes, processes and methods, many different definitions of learning exist. Schunk (2012) defines learning as “an enduring change in behaviour, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” (p. 3). This definition simply explains the process of learning in terms of its products, although the continuing aspect of change is outlined. This definition also suggests that the processes involved in learning cannot be observed directly while it is in progress. Rather, learning can be assessed from the outcomes in terms of changed or modified behaviours. The three

main aspects which Schunk’s definition touches on are the changing nature (of behaviour) over time and the occurrence of this change through practice or other forms of experience, for example, language learning in social settings, and learning of different behaviours by imitating and observing others.

According to Woolfolk (2014), “learning occurs when experience (including practice) causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge or behaviour” (p. 272; emphasis in original). Woolfolk suggests that this change may be conscious or unconscious, correct or incorrect, and unintentional or well planned. This definition suggests that learning is change in an individual’s knowledge or behaviour. One of the aspects of this definition, consistent with a cognitive perspective, suggests learning can be seen as a change in knowledge, which is an individual’s internal cognitive activity that cannot be observed directly. Whereas another aspect, which seems congruent with the behavioural and social-cultural aspects, suggests that the change in a person’s behaviour is caused by external elements (Woolfolk, 2014). From this view, learning can be understood as a function of the environment, interactions and relationships in the society.

UNESCO (2013) defines learning as:

The process by which people acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes. ‘Quality learning’ encompasses processes through which people acquire the breadth and depth of knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to fully engage in their communities, express their ideas and talents and contribute positively to their societies. (p. 1; emphasis original)

This UNESCO report describes the quality dimension of learning and establishes a strong association between the quality of learning and employment, economical and democratic stability and good citizenship. The UNESCO report further recommends focusing on the development of critical thinking, higher-order cognitive skills and fostering lifelong learning in addition to the development of the basic life skills of literacy and numeracy.

Alexander, Schallert and Reynolds (2009) use a metaphor of a river system to describe the changing nature of learning. The authors compare the concept of learning with the river system to represent the dynamic nature of learning- its interactional nature, learner

characteristics, and the contexts and situations in which learning occurs. Alexander et al. (2009) conclude that learning, like the river system, is in a continual flux. This dynamic nature of learning has developed a new ‘science of learning’ (National Research Council, 2000a; Sawyer, 2014a) starting from a simple concept. Learning has established itself as a science because it has its own schools of thought, scientific basis, theories, perspectives, views, principles, strategies and methodologies (Sawyer, 2014a). Now, there are almost as many views on learning as number of researchers in the field. Therefore, it seems difficult to define the concept of learning precisely; rather, precision has become a relative term depending upon the philosophy of the proponent of the definition and concept.

Alexander et al. (2009) propose a very comprehensive definition (labelled by the authors as a working definition) of learning, describing it in terms of the four dimensions: what, where, who and when of learning:

Learning is a multidimensional process that results in a relatively enduring change in a person or persons, and consequently how that person or persons will perceive the world and reciprocally respond to its affordances physically, psychologically, and socially. The process of learning has as its foundation the systemic, dynamic, and interactive relations between the nature of the learner and the object of the learning as ecologically situated in a given time and place as well as over time. (p. 186)

Alexander et al. (2009) advance a framework to position the theoretical perspectives and empirical investigations of learning and describe the learning construct, keeping in mind its changing, situated, process-product and interactional aspects. The Major characteristics of learning that Alexander et al. (2009) report are change, inevitable, essential, ubiquitous, interactional, process and product, different at different times, and can be tacit and incidental as well as conscious and intentional. Another study by Arthur Graesser (2009) compiled 25 principles of learning, most of them related to cognitive aspects of learning, and also recommend the inclusion of motivational, emotional, discourse, social interaction, personality, development and neuroscience aspects in addition to cognitive aspects.

Therefore, due to the impact of the above mentioned aspects, it is difficult to define learning in a sentence or two, as it keeps changing according to the focus, content, and context. Moreover, the continuously changing nature of learning environments and situations has also added to the increasingly complex nature of learning. However, the good thing is that much is presently known about the learning process, as the field of learning has established as an evolving science (P. A. Alexander et al., 2009; Collins, Joseph, & Bielaczyc, 2004; National Research Council, 2000a), generally referred to as learning sciences (Sawyer, 2014a). Furthermore, a comprehensive image of how people learn is evolving because of the constantly developing methods of enquiry, collaborations between researchers and practitioners, and the increasing interdisciplinary nature of education (St. George & Sewell, 2014).