Learning Environment and Teaching Methods

The literature on entrepreneurship argues that a quality learning environment is crucial to efficiently support the development of entrepreneurial skills (Gibb, 2002, 2010; Pittaway, 2004; Gardner, 2008; Education International, 2012). Teaching methods in particular are required that encourage experiential learning through an action-oriented and problem- based approach (Rae, 2000, 2005; Lyons, 2002; Aronsson, 2004; Honig, 2004; Tan and Frank, 2005; Hanke et al., 2005; Mueller et al., 2006; Morland and Thompson, 2010; Moustaghfir and Širca, 2010).

3.1.5.2.3.1 Learning Environment

The learning environment refers to everything outside the learner including the nature of the skill, the situation it is practised in, the teaching quality, the facility characteristics, current learning partnerships, learning materials used, practice methods, and feedback (Hampton, 2002; Gibbs, 2010, 2012; Monks and Schmidt, 2010).

Jones and English (2004) designed a framework for a new programme in Entrepreneurship at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Within this programme, the students have the autonomy over how, when, and where they learn. They call this autonomous approach ‘student-centred learning’. The expected benefit for the student is seen in a deeper learning experience that includes in particular collaborative activities, goal-driven tasks, intellectual discovery, activities that heighten strategic, tactical and practical thinking, and activities that provide practice in learning skills (Robinson et al., 2016). The main precondition of this ‘entrepreneurial’ teaching strategy is, however, a learning environment in which students are encouraged to actively engage with this process. This learning environment is characterised by replacing conventional lectures

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and tutorials with web-based, small-group workshops, preparing, presenting, and discussing various case studies on the specific topics and tasks under examination. The web-based approach is used as an interactive platform for online working, e.g. chat rooms or discussion boards. Working online and successfully studying cases in close collaboration with others creates an intense atmosphere of learning that is designed to enable students to exercise a significant degree of flexibility over how they learn and to make the learning process as creative and innovative as the subject matter itself. The performance assessment takes place on the basis of feedback in the form of internal and external peer evaluations. The internal peer evaluation focuses on both the individual’s contribution and performance within the working group and skill development, whereas the external peer evaluation focuses on the group performance during the workshop presentations. Jones and English (2004) as well as Robinson et al. (2016) present evidence that, with the help of this student-centred learning and assessment focus, the students’ skill development and belief in their ability to take control of their future were positively affected. In this context, Tell (2008) likewise stresses the importance of learning networks to foster knowledge building and skill development by a process of feedback, discussion and knowledge exchange.

To sum up, approaches to describe a promising entrepreneurial learning environment (e.g. Reuber and Fisher, 1993; Rae, 2000, 2005, 2009, 2012; Lyons, 2002; Aronsson, 2004; Honig, 2004; Tan and Frank, 2005; Hanke et al., 2005; Mueller et al., 2006; Carey and Matlay, 2007; Gardner, 2008; Morland and Thompson, 2010; Moustaghfir and Širca, 2010; Gibb and Price, 2014) highlight the following elements:

• action-oriented learning: developing skills requires practical experience and therefore practical exercises. In this context, the learning should be both goal- oriented and experiential to create room for failures and retries.

• trained teaching staff: Only with the help of entrepreneurially trained teaching staff are target-oriented feedback and personal on-site coaching/mentoring during the practical exercise stages possible.

• on-site coaching: experiential learning is most efficient when the learner receives guidance in action and immediate feedback after the exercises. The easiest way to

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implement such an intense learning environment with close contact to teachers and peers is to form small learning groups.

• collaborative learning: Learning with peers creates an open communication flow that enables knowledge sharing and the creation of new ideas in solving problems. In addition, the learners experience other ways of thinking. They can therefore broaden and widen their own mind. Furthermore, learning with peers allows

immediate feedback, irrespective of teaching staff. This feedback is of highest value in relation to the development of skills – and personality.

• responsibility: Learners should have the responsibility over their learning. They know their way of learning best and are therefore able to decide how, when, where, and with whom to learn. In addition, responsibility improves the development of decision making, risk taking, and strategic and tactical thinking skills.

3.1.5.2.3.2 Teaching Methods

According to Gibb and Price (2014, p. 17), “entrepreneurial teaching is designed to maximise the potential for stimulating entrepreneurial attributes and insight and equipping participants for action.” In this context, teaching methods in entrepreneurship education can more or less be classified into the categories of passive and active methods (Dale, 1946, 1954, 1969; Carrier, 2007; Hindle, 2007; Fayolle, 2007; Fu et al., 2009; Lonappan and Deravaj, 2011; Gibb and Price, 2014). The first category comprises in particular formal lectures and frontal workshops and seminars with a tendentially passive engagement of learners. These methods are also called hands-off methods, while the second category includes action learning or hands-on methods where learners are challenged to apply this new knowledge, such as group projects, study visits, project work, role-playing games, guest speakers, simulations, and e-learning games.

Honig (2004) stresses that traditional ‘hands-off’ approaches are still widely used teaching methods in higher education in Europe. According to Bennett (2006), the three most used teaching methods in entrepreneurship education are: lectures, case studies, and group discussions. He shows evidence that these methods are also used in other business-related courses and that they are relatively traditional and less effective in influencing entrepreneurial attributes.

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In the context of entrepreneurship education, Arasti et al. (2012, p. 2) stress that “there is no universal pedagogical recipe to teach entrepreneurship and the choice of techniques and modalities depends mainly on the objectives, contents and constraints.” According to Hytti and O’Gorman (2004), the selection of an appropriate method depends in particular on the objectives of the education. In their opinion, the most effective way to accomplish the objective is to increase the understanding of what entrepreneurship is about and to provide information through traditional methods such as teacher-centred lectures or seminars. Yet if the objective is to equip students with entrepreneurial mindsets and skills, the best way is said to be by providing real-life training opportunities that enable them to be directly involved in the entrepreneurial process, such as work placements (e.g. Miettinen, 2006; Carey and Matlay, 2007; Plumly et al., 2008; Fry et al., 2009; Mwasalwiba; 2010; Clark, 2012; O’Neil et al., 2013). Levie et al. (2009) show evidence that a combination of college/university-based training and work placements provide the highest level of opportunity perception and entrepreneurial skills. Kirby (2004a) criticises that entrepreneurship educators very often end up teaching about entrepreneurship due to the use of false techniques, in particular formal lessons. In order to teach entrepreneurship as a career, he also recommends the use of some kind of apprenticeship. Similar findings are shown by other researchers in recent years. Stuetzer et al. (2013) show evidence that work placements are crucial for entrepreneurial learning and later success. They analysed the dataset of more than five hundred interviewed new venture founders. They found that varied work experience positively relates to entrepreneurial skills.

Developing an entrepreneurial mindset – which encompasses entrepreneurial thinking, attitude and behaviour as well as entrepreneurial skills – is best accomplished by means of mentorship, collaborative and interdisciplinary team projects, and experiential learning in real-life projects or simulation games (e.g. Ivanitskaya et al., 2002; Paulus and Nijstad, 2003; Meisiek and Haefliger, 2011; Essig, 2013; Mäkimurto- Koivumaa and Puhakka, 2013; Doyle et al., 2014). The permanent exchange of knowledge and perspectives among learners and guiding mentors produces multiple minds or habits of mind in relation to showing entrepreneurial behaviour, producing novel ideas, and recognising opportunities (Essig, 2013).

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An interesting project in this context was carried out by Löbler et al. (2005). They designed an innovative entrepreneurship programme in 2001 whereby students supported real entrepreneurs in the start-up phase at the University of Leipzig for two years. The main goal of the programme was not to transform students into entrepreneurs but to develop their entrepreneurial mindset in cooperation with others without actually starting their own business activities. The findings expose that real-life learning, when guided by mentors, leads to significant changes in students’ perceptions of their entrepreneurial spirit and in developing entrepreneurial skills, enthusiasm, and even delight over time. In any domain of human skill, when it comes to cultivating expertise it helps to have guidelines from experts themselves. As an old Zen saying puts it in this context, “If you want to get to the top of the mountain, ask someone who goes up and down the path to the summit.” (Goleman, 2008, foreword). This is supported by the findings of Pittaway and Cope (2006, 2007) as well as Chang and Rieple (2013). Mentoring by experts is widely acknowledged in entrepreneurship and business management as a key success factor of professional and, therefore, entrepreneurial development (Aronsson, 2004; Bozeman and Feeney, 2007; Boden and Nedeya, 2010; Colvin and Ashman, 2010; Fox et al., 2010; NBIA, 2010; Dawson, 2014; Leidenfrost et al., 2014).

Guest lecturers and mentors are themselves ‘teaching methods’ of particular interest since they are already a regularly part of HEIs’ teaching process. Inviting experienced, external (industry) experts such as artists and arts entrepreneurs as guest lecturers into the classroom could be an invaluable part of fine art students’ (entrepreneurial) education. Although guest lecturers alone are not an adequate ‘teaching method’ to develop entrepreneurial skills, because skills can hardly be developed by storytelling, guest lecturers can, though, transfer factual and practical relevant knowledge. Having deep discussions with motivational and inspiring practitioners and people with entrepreneurial mindsets, skills, and work ethics could help fine art students discover new ways of (entrepreneurial) thinking and to stimulate the development of their entrepreneurial mindsets. Motivational and authentic speakers can boost students’ optimism and create an overall feeling of confidence in terms of Bandura’s self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1995, 2001). In short, self-efficacy describes a psychological phenomenon of subjective conviction to overcome difficult challenges and problems of

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living only by relying on one’s own competencies. Self-efficacy can therefore be seen as the crucial ability to show that by overcoming considerable obstacles it’s possible to make it through anything. This conviction may be visible in an optimistic view of life and great powers of endurance.

To conclude, the literature findings point out that, due to the fact that people learn in different ways, there exists no single method to effectively teach enterprising or entrepreneurial skills. Key to a successful entrepreneurship education seems to be the combination of adequate teaching methods, applied and guided by qualified teaching mentors, which match the educational objectives or students’ needs of entrepreneurial skills with the learning environment in the most effective way.

3.1.5.2.4 The Status of Arts Entrepreneurship Education at Higher Education