Learning resources in ZPD

Besides peers and teachers, learning materials that are within learners’ ZPD also play a role as mediators to increase the effectiveness of language learning (Ash & Levitt, 2003; Hung, 2009). Empirical studies have confirmed the positive outcomes of using appropriate learning materials to promote foreign language learning (e.g., Akkas, 2016; Aseri, 2017; Gilakjani, 2016; Kao, 2010; Lee & Mallinder, 2017; Yang, 2006).

With the development of modern ICTs, multimedia learning resources become one of the types of typical mediators for language learning in the ZPD (Hun & Beglar, 2005; Riazi & Rezaii, 2011; Sakka, 2016; Wichadee, 2010). Empirical studies have found that multimedia resources are routine for language learning and teaching (e.g., King, 2002; Kusmayanti & Sari, 2015; Mekheimer, 2011; Yang & Qian, 2017; Zhong & Shen, 2002). Compared with traditional learning materials, multimedia learning resources within EFL students’ ZPD often have more attractions for EFL students, providing them with engaging learning experiences (Baghdari, Rad, & Sabzevari, 2017; Chung, 2002; Huang, Chern, & Lin, 2009; Lin, 2016; Miyazoe & Anderson, 2010; Sakar & Ercetin, 2005; Thornton & Houser, 2005).

Kageto, Sato, and Kirkpatrick (2012) employed multimedia technologies to create an authentic language setting for Japanese EFL students. A total of 100 EFL students participated in this case study. Data were gathered via a post-questionnaire and records for autonomous learning activities. The study found that EFL students were satisfied with their daily practice of English language learning. The learning content that were in students’ ZPDs also worked well to encourage Japanese EFL students to make a breakthrough in language learning.

Kao (2010) conducted a study to investigate the effects of multimedia learning, which manifested ZPDs as social practice, on self-directed language learning among

less successful EFL students. Twelve university EFL students in Taiwan were recruited as subjects of the case study. Intensive interviews, learning diaries, observations, and debriefings were employed as instruments for data collection. Qualitative methods were used to analyse data. Results of the study indicated that with scaffolding from peers and instructors, these EFL students could achieve their learning goals and reach their ZPDs by using multimedia resources for self-directed learning.

These empirical studies provide some insights of the use of multimedia technologies to facilitate language learning within a learner’s ZPD, which have received positive outcomes. It enlightens the present study to further discover the impacts of multimedia resources on language learning in a Chinese university context, particularly on learning in an online autonomous space. EFL students’ acceptance of these technology-supported learning resources is to be considered in the study, to provide more information about the integration of this type of mediator into language learning.

Authentic materials for language learning are commonly organized in a

multimedia format (Khaniya, 2006; Lin & Chen, 2007). Existing studies have noticed the effectiveness of authentic multimedia materials on the development of EFL students’ language skills and knowledge (e.g, Bahrani, 2011; Mardani & Tavakoli,

2016; Mayora, 2009; Rivera, 2010; Sun & Chang, 2012; Taheri, 2016; Wikström, 2016). There are also studies focusing on other aspects of EFL students’ language development with the support of authentic multimedia resources, including learning motivation (Bajrami & Ismaili, 2017; Birketveit & Rimmereide, 2017; Florence, 2009), independence and autonomy (Dang, 2010; Hwang, 2005; Ulfiati & Kurniawan, 2016), confidence (Anjarani, 2017; Shadiev, Hwang, & Huang, 2017; Wu, Yen, & Marek, 2011), and intercultural communication (Berramdane, 2017; Kilickaya, 2004; Kohn & Hoffstaedter, 2017).

Videos are one of the common forms of multimedia resources in language learning. They are generally defined as the selection of messages in an audio-visual form (Wang, 2012). Empirical research has been conducted to investigate the use of video-based learning, and confirmed its positive promotion of learners’ foreign

language development (e.g., Canning-Wilson & Wallace, 2000; Chen, 2012; Hayati & Mohmedi, 2009; Huang & Eskey, 2000; Hwang & Huang, 2011; Lin, 2016; Lin & Tseng, 2012; Park & Jung, 2016; Saito & Akiyama, 2018). Video-based language learning is a major approach for EFL development (Ahmad, 2016; Hung & Higgins, 2016), which is also the research focus of the current study.

Perez, Peters, and Desmet (2013) conducted a study to examine the effectiveness of captioned videos in learning French as a second language. A total of 226 university

students in Belgium participated in the research. Questionnaires and measurable tests were used for collecting both qualitative and quantitative data. Data showed that videos facilitated listening comprehension in students’ L2 learning. This research suggested that videos with scaffolded materials be used in the L2 learning and teaching that can result in a higher level of comprehension. The current study investigates the employment of scaffolded video resources in a different learning range; that is, EFL learning in China, to reveal the influence of audio-visual materials on foreign language development of EFL students there.

In a Chinese context, a comparative study was conducted by Lin and Tseng (2012) to investigate the use of videos to help students to learn difficult English words (e.g. falconry, jester, derby and revelry). A total of 88 junior high school students in Taiwan participated in the research. Data were collected from pre- and post-test. Three groups of data were generated in comparison of students’ performance in learning: one group employed videos as the learning tool, one used texts only, and the last group employed both pictures and texts. Results showed that videos assisted students to best acquire the meanings of these difficult words as well as the understandings of the target language. As participants of this study were young teenagers and their language awareness and development were different from those of adult learners, the current study focuses on adult learners’ foreign language awareness and competence development. It expands the range of research on video-based

learning, and provides information about adult EFL learners’ language development with the support of digital resources.

Besides its beneficial effects on language learning, video-based language learning has been realized as an attractive learning approach that arouses language learners’ interest (e.g., Aburto et al., 2015; Alsulami, 2016; Kabooha & Elyas, 2018; Kim, 2015; Shahid & Ali, 2017; Yarbrough, 2001). While its attractiveness is also considered to impose negative impacts on foreign language learning by distracting students’ attention (Göktürk & Altay, 2015; Gülten, 2017; Perez, Peters, & Desmet, 2014; Shahani, Tahriri, & Divsar, 2014), measures that cope with this distraction in video-based language learning are suggested to be employed, particularly in an autonomous environment (Hayati & Mohmedi, 2011; Lin, 2016).

To examine the extent to what L2 learners are distracted by multimedia resources in their learning activities, a study was conducted (Wagner, 2007). A total of 36 L2 students at a university in the United States participated in the study. A language test and videotaped records were employed for data collection. The study suggested that although students spent time on video watching, they did not report being distracted by video materials in their learning process. In addition, videos were also found to be beneficial to L2 learners’ comprehension.

The current study investigates EFL students’ distraction by using videos and audios in a resource-rich online context. Their strategies to deal with distractions from videos need some attention as well. It helps reveal how these students develop their language abilities in a multimedia-supported environment, and what measures and strategies they use to cope with challenges, particularly in an autonomous context by themselves.