The fourth theory identified is Learning Styles / characteristics / preferences. Learning Styles, Learner Characteristics and Learner Preferences all fall within this domain, as most people vary their learning styles depending on the learning circumstance and environment. There is significant literature demonstrating that the concept of Learning Styles is broadly accepted, with recent research by Thompson-Schill et al. (2009) even providing empirical evidence of Learning Styles. There is also evidence that there remains much debate around the most appropriate and effective way to measure Learning Styles (Coffield et al., 2004).
There are a number of definitions that provide a clear view about Learning Styles, Characteristics and Preferences. According to Clark (2014), ‘a learning style is a student's consistent way of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning’ (Clark, 2014; website). Meanwhile Keefe (1979) adds a deeper dimension in defining Learning Styles as, ‘the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment’(Clark, 2014; website). While these two definitions indicate it is the learner’s propensity to respond in a certain way, Stewart and Felicetti (1992) shift the focus somewhat in defining Learning Styles as those, ‘educational conditions under which a student is most likely to learn’ (Clark, 2014; website). Collectively however they all indicate that learning styles are not really concerned with what learners learn, but rather how they prefer to learn. Thus it is important that teaching, learning and training programs reflect the learning styles, characteristics and preferences of individuals in order for them to be effective learners.
Rationale
While there are any number of theorists to consider for the development and context of the conceptual framework the following have been deemed to be the most appropriate. They include Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory (LSI), Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) and Fleming’s Visual Auditory Kinesthetic (VAK) model.
Kolb’s learning styles inventory (LSI)
According to Kolb (1984) learning is, ‘the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it.’(p.41)
While there are scores of learning theories and models in the education literature the learning style theory and model that appears to dominate the simulation literature - from a reference perspective - but significantly less from a research perspective - is the work of Kolb (1984). According to Kolb (1984) effective learning involves the learner:
• feeling a concrete experience;
• undertaking reflective observation (watching the experience);
• generating abstract conceptualisation (thinking about the experience); and, • undertaking active experimentation (generating activity – doing).
Kolb (1984) also identifies four types of learners:
• Divergers, who feel and watch the learning experience (tend to reflect and brainstorm);
• Assimilators, who think and watch the learning experience (tend to apply inductive reasoning, generate ideas, develop concepts);
• Converters, who think and get actively involved in the learning experience (learning by doing) (tend to problem solve, be decision making and utilise practical skills); and, • Accommodators, who feel and carry out the learning experience (tend to use
experience, carry out tasks, are adaptive and have intuitive skills).
This is demonstrated in the following graphics - based on the two intersecting cognition planes Kolb identified: the perception and processing continuums (Figures 4 and 5).
Figure 4: Kolb's Learning Model (Clarke, 2014)
Figure 5: Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (Clarke, 2014)
It is suggested that this model is unlike many other learning models in that it provides mutually a means by which to understand individual learning styles and also a description of a progression of experiential learning15 that applies to all learners.
15 This graphic is also used to describe Experiential Learning theory. This learning styles inventory model is a variation on the Experiential Learning theory which will be discussed separately.
Honey & Mumford’s learning styles model questionnaire (LSQ)
While Kolb has dominated the learning theory landscape, he has inspired many other theorists. Honey & Mumford and Clarke draw on Kolb’s model but they differ in their inventory approach (Honey & Mumford, 2000; Clarke, 2014). While Kolb’s inventory asked people directly how they learn (Clarke, 2014) the Honey & Mumford inventory (Honey & Mumford, 2000) seeks out general behavioural tendencies. They believe most people don’t really think about how they learn and even move in and out of different learning styles - depending on the situation.
As a result, while their model is essentially the same as Kolb's model, Honey and Mumford (Honey & Mumford, 2000; Clarke, 2014) introduced some differences in terminology and meaning. They replaced the terms with their own terms;
• “reflector” for divergers (reflective observation); • “theorist” for assimilators (abstract conceptualization); • “pragmatist” for convergers (concrete experience); • “activist” for accommodators (active experimentation).
Honey and Mumford's Learning Cycle (Clarke, 2014) also slightly differs from Kolb's. Honey and Mumford (Clarke, 2014) identifies learners as having an experience, reflecting on it, drawing their own conclusions (theorising) and then putting theory into practice. See Figure 6.
Honey and Mumford (Clarke, 2014) also acknowledge that learners could continually move around the cycle, step in any part of the cycle, and then step out when they considered they had achieved success by learning the theory / content and the task or skill.
When shown these models many healthcare professionals can identify their own learning preferences when consciously asked about them. Indeed this is a simple and useful exercise as it helps the teacher / facilitator to design / deliver / pace an educational activity to more effectively capture most learning styles.
Fleming’s visual auditory kinesthetic (VAK) model
Fleming’s Visual Auditory Kinesthetic (VAK) model also resinates well with the learning characteristics of healthcare workers (James Cook University, 2015). With this model, most people possess a dominant or preferred learning style; however some people have a mixed and evenly balanced blend of the three styles;
• Visual learners • Auditory learners • Kinaesthetic learners
A further learning style sometimes raised is Tactile learners (Clarke, 2014).
There are a significant number of preferences under each of these learner styles and while the preferences of these learners are too extensive to list in the actual conceptual framework they have been transposed into a table in efforts to demonstrate the diversity identified (Table 3). They can also be accessed on the James Cook University (JCU) website under JCU Workplace Educators Resource Package.
Visual Learners Auditory Learners Kinaesthetic learners
tend to: tend to: tend to:
Learn through seeing Learn through listening Learn through moving, doing and touching
Think in pictures and need to create vivid mental images to retain information
Have highly developed auditory skills and are generally good at speaking and presenting
Express themselves through movement
Enjoy looking at maps, charts, pictures, videos, and movies
Think in words rather than pictures
Have good sense of balance and eye-hand coordination
Have visual skills which are demonstrated in puzzle building, reading, writing, understanding charts and graphs, a good sense of direction, sketching, painting, creating visual metaphors and analogies (perhaps through the visual arts), manipulating images, constructing, fixing, designing practical objects, and interpreting visual images
Learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to what others have to say
Remember and process information through interacting with the space around them
Have auditory skills demonstrated in listening, speaking, writing, storytelling, explaining, teaching, using humour, understanding the syntax and meaning of words, remembering information, arguing their point of view, and analysing language usage
Find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration
Have skills demonstrated in physical coordination, athletic ability, hands on experimentation, using body language, crafts, acting, miming, using their hands to create or build, dancing, and expressing emotions through the body.
Table 3: Learner Style Preferences
Modified from JCU Workplace Educators Resource Package
Website: http://www.jcu.edu.au/wiledpack/modules/fsl/JCU_090460.html
On the JCU Workplace Educators Resource Package web page they also provide a number of techniques that can be applied to facilitate students in developing, exploring and enhancing their learning strengths. It is suggested that the more a student learns via a combination of all the learning styles (visual, auditory and kinaesthetic) the more integrated and entrenched the learning will be. Table 4 offers Leaning Styles activities to encourage learners.
Visual Learners Auditory Learners Kinaesthetic learners
Encourage to: Encourage to: Encourage to:
use graphics to reinforce learning
read aloud make models or role play to physically experience learning colour code to organise notes
and possessions
recite information to learn skim through reading material before reading it in detail
use colour to highlight important points in text
use tunes or rhymes as mnemonic devices
annotate text and write questions while reading
take notes read aloud and tape test
questions or directions
translate information into diagrams or other visual study tools
illustrate ideas as a picture before writing them down
use verbal analogies and storytelling to demonstrate their point
recite a list of items by counting on fingers
ask for written directions memorise or drill while moving e.g. when walking
use flow charts and diagrams
for note taking listen to music while studying
visualise spelling of words or facts to be memorised
Table 4: Learner Style Activities
Modified from JCU Workplace Educators Resource Package Website: http://www.jcu.edu.au/wiledpack/modules/fsl/JCU_090460.html
For those considering a simulation-based intervention, use of these two Tables may be of benefit to review before any planning and designing occurs.