Limitations and Implications for Future Research

For the TES as presented herein, we chose a trait approach, which should be suitable to assess teachers’ emotions in a non-intrusive and economical way. We are aware of and point any potential user of the instrument to the fact that such trait-based retrospective judgments may be influenced not only by the “true scores” of participants’ emotional experiences, but also by their beliefs about their emotions (Goetz, Bieg, Lüdtke, Pekrun, & Hall, 2013; Robinson & Clore, 2002). Nevertheless, we are convinced that such trait-like emotional experiences are highly relevant for general well-being and also have important behavioral implications (e.g., teachers’ intentions to quit, Klassen & Chiu, 2011) – in fact, some

researchers have argued that trait emotions matter even more than state emotions, for example with respect to decision making (Wirtz et al., 2003).

Notably, trait-based scales can easily be adapted for state assessments (Gogol et al., 2014), and we suggest that the TES can be adapted in a similar fashion. For example, teachers would be asked “How do you feel at the moment?” and corresponding TES items would then be, “I enjoy teaching/I feel enthusiastic/I feel annoyed/I have reasons to get angry/I feel tense and nervous/I am worried that my teaching isn’t going so well.” Such in situ approaches to assessing teacher emotions have been applied successfully in scattered past studies (Carson, Weiss, & Templin, 2010; Goetz et al., 2015; Keller, Chang, Becker, Goetz, & Frenzel, 2014).

A less intrusive, yet still more highly situated approach to assessing teacher emotions would be a teaching diary, which involves teachers judging their emotions right after a lesson (e.g., Becker, Keller, Goetz, Frenzel, & Taxer, 2015; Frenzel et al., 2015). The TES can also easily be adapted for use in such diary studies, by introducing the items with “In the past lesson…”and then adding for example, “I enjoyed teaching/I had reasons to become angry/I was tense and nervous”, et cetera.

Additionally, when constructing questionnaires on emotional experiences, it is challenging to tease apart inner feelings from shown behaviors. In that respect, our item “I teach with enthusiasm” might be slightly ambiguous, potentially addressing either feeling enthusiastic, or behaving enthusiastically in terms of a teaching style (see also Kunter et al., 2011). Given that we have repeatedly found in our studies that this item – both in its German and English versions – showed consistently high item-total correlations with the enjoyment scale, we suspect that most respondents interpret the term “enthusiasm” in this context more as an affective experience than as a behavior. Nevertheless, we are convinced that teasing apart affective experiences from displayed behaviors is meaningful particularly for the construct of teacher enthusiasm (Keller, Woolfolk Hoy, Goetz, & Frenzel, in press; Taxer & Frenzel, 2015b). Researchers who focus on this distinction in their research will either want to abandon the “enthusiasm” item from the enjoyment scale, or adapt it into “I experience

enthusiasm when I teach” to focus explicitly on the feeling component of enthusiasm. Another limitation of the present study is that it included only teachers from western, individualistic cultures (Germany and Canada). While we were able to show that the German and English language versions of the TES are largely equivalent, future research will have to show if translations into other languages can also be successful, particularly into languages that are spoken in eastern, collectivistic cultures (see Frenzel, Thrash, Pekrun, & Goetz, 2007, about attempts to translate the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire for students into

from eastern versus western countries could reveal if the mean levels of reported enjoyment, anger, and anxiety differ between teachers from those cultures, and it would be interesting to explore if differing emotion display rules for classrooms contribute to those differences.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that future research may want to address a broader range of discrete emotions for teachers. While the TES address three highly relevant and frequent emotions teachers experience, there are other emotions with most likely lower frequency that nevertheless might deserve future research attention. We believe that pity would be an intriguing candidate, since despite its clearly pro-social, empathetic connotation, attribution theory would imply that it has detrimental effects for students’ self-concepts if teachers express pity about students’ poor performance (Butler, 1994; Graham, 1984; Rustemeyer, 1984). In addition, the emotion of boredom also seems to be underestimated for teaching contexts. While this emotion is barely ever mentioned by teachers in interview studies, it was shown to be experienced with surprisingly high frequency in studies that used the experience sampling method to explore teachers’ emotional lives (Carson, 2006; Goetz et al., 2015; Keller, Chang, et al., 2014). Further discrete emotions worth exploring might be pride, which teachers reported to rather frequently express in the classroom, and disappointment, which they reported to deliberately hide, according to a recent quantitative study of teachers’ emotion regulation in the classroom (Taxer & Frenzel, 2015a).

To conclude, the general and student-group specific variants of the TES are economic, reliable, and valid instruments in both German and English. As such, they stand to make an important contribution to advancing research on teachers’ emotions by providing robust quantitative measures that can expand the current body of primarily qualitative knowledge on teacher emotions (Frenzel, 2014; Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). We hope that the existence of the TES inspires future research directed at exploring relations between teachers’ emotions and their coping and emotion-regulation. For example, it will be intriguing to explore how teachers’ reports of their enjoyment, anger, and anxiety relate with their efforts to engage in

antecedent-focused emotion regulation (i.e., regulation before the emotion is generated) and response-focused emotion regulation (i.e., after the emotion is generated, cf. Gross, 1998). As such, the TES should also be an effective tool for evaluating the success of intervention studies directed at emotion regulation and coping for teachers. Additionally, the TES provides a tool to measure baseline scores of typically reported levels of experienced emotions during teaching, and thus will allow explorations of when and why teachers engage in emotional labor, and with what implications. This type of research is particularly important and timely because teachers’ emotions are proving to be highly relevant not only for their own well- being but also for the functioning of classrooms.

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