Linear+green+space+

Natural(and(humanEmade(landforms(in(cities(provide(ideal(opportunities(for(linear(green(space( systems.( These( can( include( vegetated( riparian( zones( alongside( urban( creeks( and( rivers,( vegetated(greenways(that(run(parallel(to(roads,(and(reclaimed(transport(infrastructure(such(as( elevated(rail(lines(and(roads.(Linear(green(space(systems(can(also(be(developed(to(connect(parks( and( other( green( spaces( throughout( the( city.( Linear( parks( are( key( biophilic( elements,( as( they( provide(opportunities(for(people(to(move(throughout(the(city(by(walking(or(cycling(within(green( space,(protected(from(cars.(They(also(allow(wildlife(to(move(between(the(larger(refuges((Conine,( Xiang,( Young,( &( Whitley,( 2004).( As( transportation( modes( and( urban( plans( change( in( cities,( transport(infrastructure(can(become(obsolete(and(provide(opportunities(to(develop(urban(green( space.( Such( repurposing( of( disused( infrastructure( has( allowed( for( the( High( Line( Park( in( New( York,(and(the(Promenade(Plantée(in(Paris.(

Potential)to)mitigate)the)urban)heat)island)effect)

The(UHI(effects(of(linear(green(parks(are(similar(to(those(described(in(other(sections,(including( for(pocket(parks((Section(5.3.1),(street(integrated(trees(and(vegetation((Section(5.3.2)(and(urban( parks( (Section( 5.4.1).( Of( consideration( is( the( distance( from( the( green( space( that( the( cooling( benefit( is( felt.( As( linear( green( space( traverses( parts( of( the( city,( the( potential( of( this( biophilic( element(to(cool(built(up(areas(of(the(city(may(be(greater((in(spatial(terms)(than(a(large(city(park,( for(instance.(

Potential)to)mitigate)climate)change)

The(potential(for(linear(green(space(to(mitigate(climate(change(is(assumed(to(be(similar(to(that(of( parks((see(Section(5.3.1),(depending(largely(on(the(presence(of(trees(and(vegetation.((

Potential)to)enhance)water)cycle)management)

Linear( green( space( that( runs( alongside( constructed( infrastructure( such( as( roads( can( act( as( a( buffer(to(infiltrate(and(treat(runoff,(as(discussed(for(streetEintegrated(trees(and(vegetation((see( Section(5.3.2).(Linear(green(space(along(natural(features(such(as(rivers(can(infiltrate(and(slow( stormwater(runoff,(to(protect(the(river’s(riparian(zone(and(water(quality((Conine,(et(al.,(2004).( Riparian( zones( in( urban( areas( are( frequently( degraded( due( to( the( hydrologic( changes( to( the( catchment,( with( lower( water( tables( and( drier,( more( aerobic( soils( reducing( the( potential( for( denitrification((which(is(a(critical(process(for(stream(health).(Evidence(suggests(that(deep(rooted( vegetation( may( be( particularly( important( for( increasing( the( extent( of( the( denitrification( zone( (Gift,( Groffman,( Kaushal,( &( Mayer,( 2010),( amongst( broader( catchment( management,( and( in( particular( minimising( effective( imperviousness,( is( critical( to( stream( health( (Walsh,( Fletcher,( &( Ladson,(2005).(

Potential)to)improve)air)quality)

Air( quality( benefits( of( linear( parks( are( assumed( to( be( similar( to( those( of( pocket( parks,( as( discussed(in(Section(5.3.1.(

Potential)to)enhance)urban)biodiversity)

Linear(green(space(provides(corridors(that(can(link(habitat(refuges(within(urban(areas,(and(to( rural(areas(beyond(the(city,(facilitating(the(movement(of(species(and(allowing(for(colonisation( and(recolonisation(of(isolated(habitat(fragments((Savard,(Clergeau,(&(Mennechez,(2000).(Wolch,( et( al.( (2010)( found( a( system( of( “links”( and( “hubs”( are( needed( to( provide( interconnected( networks(of(refuge(areas(for(populations(as(well(as(corridors(to(encourage(migration(between( such( refuges,( with( linear( green( space( able( to( provide( these( links( where( this( is( designed( to( connect(with(larger(green(space(areas(within(and(outside(of(the(city.(

Potential)for)economic)revitalisation))

The( conversion( of( obsolete( transport( infrastructure,( which( is( generally( an( urban( blight,( into( linear(parkland(is(a(key(emerging(linear(biophilic(element,(particularly(in(already(builtEup(cities( where(opportunities(to(create(new(green(space(are(scarce.(The(concurrent(removal(of(visually( unattractive( infrastructure( and( creation( of( green( space( catalysed( significant( economic( development( in( New( York( with( the( High( Line( park.( Together( with( the( rezoning( of( the(

surrounding(area,(this(stimulated(an(estimated(US$2(billion(in(private(investment(surrounding( the(park,(with(12,000(jobs,(2,558(new(residential(units,(1,000(hotel(rooms,(more(than(423,000( square(feet(of(new(office(space(and(85,000(square(feet(of(new(art(gallery(space.(From(the(first( section(opening(in(2009(until(midE2012,(approximately(8(million(people(visited(the(Park((City(of( New(York,(2012).(Similar(findings(exist(for(the(conversion(of(a(disused(rail(yard(into(Millennium( Park(in(Chicago((Goodman(Williams(Group(&(URS(Corporation,(2005;(Groos(&(Dages,(2008).( Potential)to)encourage)active)transport)and)increase)physical)activity)

Linear( green( ways( have( the( potential( to( encourage( cycling( and( walking( by( providing( safe,( interesting,(shaded(and(visually(attractive(corridors(for(traversing(the(city((Conine,(et(al.,(2004).( People(are(more(likely(to(walk(and(cycle(when(there(is(greenery,(and(select(their(route(based(on( the( amount( of( vegetation( available( (Macdonald,( et( al.,( 2008;( Zlot( &( Schmid,( 2005).( In( warmer( climates,(vegetation((such(as(shade(trees)(can(provide(an(important(role(in(enhancing(physical( comfort( of( pedestrians( with( regard( to( temperature( (Macdonald,( et( al.,( 2008).( This( may( be( as( greenery( provides( a( more( comfortable( and( visually( engaging( environment( that( encourages( pedestrians(and(cyclists((National(Complete(Streets(Coalition,(n.d.).(Research(by((Macdonald,(et( al.,(2008)(also(found(that(the(design(and(configuration(of(streets(and(the(inclusion(of(vegetation( are(important(determinants(in(levels(of(walking,(and(that(people(are(more(likely(to(walk(where( there(is(a(network(of(pathways(that(connect(destinations((Wolch,(et(al.,(2010).!( Considerations)for)use) The(considerations(for(use(described(for(city(scale(parks((See(Section(5.4.1)(are(considered(to( apply(here(also.( 5.4.3 City+farms+and+urban+agriculture+ City(farms(and(urban(agriculture(can(be(seen(in(a(variety(of(forms,(varying(in(size,(management,( function( and( ownership.( In( many( of( Australia’s( major( cities,( city( farms( provide( a( range( of( functions( including( education( and( training,( employment,( access( to( nature( and( animals( for( children( and( adults,( and( food( production( (for( example( Collingwood( Children's( Farm,( 2014;( Northey( Street( City( Farm,( 2014).( Around( the( world,( renewed( interest( in( urban( agriculture( is( resulting(from(awareness(that(this(provides(ecological,(social(and(health(benefits(in(addition(to( bringing( food( production( closer( to( consumers( (Lovell,( 2010).( In( many( cities,( urban( food( production(continues(to(provide(a(substantial(proportion(of(the(city’s(food(needs,(demonstrating( the(ability(of(such(forms(of(agriculture(to(enhance(food(security((Deelstra(&(Girardet,(2000).(

Urban(agriculture(can(also(be(integrated(into(many(of(the(biophilic(elements(discussed(in(this( Chapter,(such(as(in(backyards,(verge(strips,(street(trees,(and(green(roofs(and(walls.(Many(of(the(

benefits( discussed( here( therefore( could( apply( to( other( biophilic( elements( if( edible( plants( are( used.((

Potential)to)reduce)the)urban)heat)island)effect)

Research(that(specifically(considered(UHI(mitigation(benefits(of(urban(farms(or(agriculture(was( not( found,( however( this( is( assumed( to( be( a( function( of( the( number( of( size( of( trees,( other( vegetation,(and(irrigation(regime.(See(Section(5.3.1(for(a(discussion(of(these(factors.(

Potential)to)mitigate)climate)change)

Certain(farming(techniques(can(enhance(agricultural(soils,(including(minimising(soil(tilling,(using( cover(crops(and(mulching(soils,(adding(compost(and(manure(to(soils,(and(other(systems(of(soil( and( water( management( (Lal,( 2004).( With( such( techniques,( rates( of( soil( carbon( sequestration( have( been( measured( at( 50( to( 1000( kg/ha/year( (Lal,( 2004).( Where( urban( food( production( decreases( the( need( for( food( to( be( grown( outside( of( the( city( and( transported( in,( this( may( also( decrease(greenhouse(gas(emissions(related(to(transport,(cool(storage,(and(packaging((Dubbeling( &( de( Zeeuw,( 2011).( For( a( discussion( of( other( factors( likely( to( affect( the( climate( mitigation( potential(of(urban(farms,(see(Section(5.3.1.((

Potential)to)assist)in)water)cycle)management)

Urban( farms( and( agriculture( assist( in( managing( the( water( cycle( by( creating( or( protecting( permeable(soils(to(allow(infiltration((Dubbeling(&(de(Zeeuw,(2011).(Water(may(be(collected(on( urban( farms( for( irrigation,( such( as( in( rainwater( tanks,( further( reducing( stormwater( runoff.( Urban( farms( are( often( located( on( flood( prone( land,( such( as( the( Northey( Street( City( Farm( (Northey(Street(City(Farm,(n.d.).(_{This(beneficially(uses(such(land,(while(ensuring(it(remains(free(}

from(construction.(

Potential)to)improve)air)quality)

The( degree( to( which( urban( farms( improve( urban( air( quality( is( largely( dependent( on( the( vegetation(within(the(park,(through(mechanisms(discussed(in(Section(5.3.1.(

Potential)to)increase)biodiversity)

Urban(farms(can(increase(biodiversity(by(including(a(range(of(different(edible(species.(As(noted( in(Section(5.2.3,(however,(this(may(contribute(to(biotic(homogenisation.(

Potential)to)improve)health)and)wellbeing)

Wakefield,( Yeudall,( Taron,( Reynolds,( and( Skinner( (2007)( summarised( the( health( impacts( of( community( gardens( from( the( literature( as( including:( improved( access( to( food( and( better(

nutrition;( more( physical( activity;( improved( mental( health;( stronger( community( ties( leading( to( improved( security( and( safety;( education( and( job( skills( training;( greater( social( capital( through( increased( social( ties( and( appreciation( of( social( diversity;( longEterm( health( outcomes( resulting( from(improved(local(ecology(and(sustainability.(The(authors(note(that(much(of(this(evidence(is( anecdotal,( although( their( own( study( confirmed( many( of( these( findings,( with( community( gardeners(reporting(better(nutrition,(greater(opportunity(for(physical(activity,(stress(alleviation,( and(improved(mental(health.((

Potential)to)retain)nutrients)and)reduce)municipal)waste)

Urban(agriculture(allows(for(the(beneficial(use(of(organic(waste(in(a(city,(including(food(waste,( green( waste( and( effluent( (Deelstra( &( Girardet,( 2000).( This( reduces( demand( on( landfills,( and( prevents( the( loss( of( the( nutrients( present( in( the( waste( by( returning( them( to( agricultural( soil( (McClintock,(2010).((

Potential)to)increase)food)security)

Urban( food( production( has( historically( increased( during( major( political,( economic( and( environmental(crises((Barthel,(Parker,(&(Ernstson,(2013).(During(such(periods,(when(largeEscale( agriculture(and(distribution(systems(are(disrupted,(food(gardens(have(saved(multitudes(of(city( dwellers( from( starvation,( and( even( today( can( be( seen( to( be( playing( a( role( in( Athens,( where( economic( collapse( has( affected( food( supplies( to( the( city( (Barthel,( et( al.,( 2013).( Barthel,( et( al.( (2013)(stressed(that(these(largeEscale(systems(can(provide(resilience(to(food(supplies(in(times(of( mediumElevel( food( shortages,( however( cities( remain( highly( vulnerably( to( higherElevel( disruptions( to( food( production( and( distribution( if( urban( food( production( capacity( is( not( retained.( Such( food( production( is( reliant( on( both! having( the( physical( space( and( resources( to( grow(food(in(cities,(as(well(as(the(skills(and(knowledge(to(do(so,(and(thus(requires(some(form(of( continuity.( The( Australian( Government( similarly( emphasised( that( food( security( does( not( just( mean(having(enough(food(in(a(typical(year,(but(rather(that(it(means(having(reliable,(consistent( and(sustainable(access(to(nutritious(and(affordable(food((Prime(Minister’s(Science,(2010).( Potential)to)increase)social)capital) Community(farms(often(provide(a(focal(point(for(the(community,(education(in(food(production( and(sustainable(living,(and(reconnection(of(city(residents(with(food(production.(In(many(cases,( community(farms(are(part(of(a(broader(social(welfare(program(in(multicultural(or(disadvantaged( communities.(For(example,(in(New(York(City(Just(Foods(is(working(to(combat(poverty(through( community(gardens,(enabling(community(gardeners(to(teach(others(how(to(grow(their(own(food( (Just(Foods,(n.d.).(A(community(garden(in(Toronto(was(seen(as(a(place(where(people(from(the( community( from( various( cultural( backgrounds( could( gain( better( understanding( of( each( other(

through( food( as( a( neutral( starting( point.( Further,( they( experienced( it( brought( people( out( of( isolation,(and(provided(a(mechanism(for(discussing(broader(community(issues((Wakefield,(et(al.,( 2007).(

Considerations)for)use)

E Lack! of! city! support:( Wakefield,( et( al.( (2007)( highlight( several( challenges( faced( by( a( community(garden(in(Toronto,(including(insecure(tenure(of(the(land,(a(lack(of(support(from( decisionEmakers,(a(lack(of(resources,(and(long(waiting(lists.((

E Soil!contaminants:(Urban(soils(can(be(contaminated(by(previous(land(uses,(of(which(lead(is( the(most(prevalent.(Bioaccumulation(of(lead(in(plants(is(minimal,(however(there(is(a(greater( risk( associated( with( improperly( washed( root( crops( with( soil( still( attached,( children( eating( soil( in( gardens,( or( soil( particles( becoming( airborne.( Mulching( garden( beds,( and( washing( produce(well,(are(effective(mitigation(measures((Wortman(&(Lovell,(2013).(

E Water! requirements:( Periodic( low( water( availability( in( Australian( cities( is( a( challenge( to( maintain( all( forms( of( vegetation.( Collection( and( use( of( rainwater,( and( judicious( use( of( greywater,(can(provide(alternative(water(sources,(to(complement(water(efficient(irrigation( and(gardening(techniques((Wortman(&(Lovell,(2013).(

E Urban! climate! conditions:( The( UHI( effect( and( higher( vapour( pressure( deficits( frequently( found(in(cities(can(be(a(challenge(for(crops(resulting(in(decreased(yields((Wortman(&(Lovell,( 2013).(₍