Decentralisation transforms the way the government functions and interacts with the local communities or the public (MLGRD, 2014:14). However, the extent of transformation is determined by the form of decentralisation that is pursued. While deconcentration offers little chance in terms of community involvement in public affairs, devolution enhances improved community participation through transfer of political and administrative powers to local authorities (Hussein, 2003: 168). Vedeld (2003:160) considers devolution as an institutionalised form of participatory development, in which people, as argued by Azfar et al (2001:6), are provided with better opportunities to participate in decision-making. Chiweza (2004: 45) relates these opportunities to decision-making structures, knowledge, skills, resources, information, and a conducive environment that devolutionary decentralisation provides.
In addition, the attitude of both service providers and local communities determines the extent to which local communities get involved in decision- making and control of the local development process. Therefore, the relationship between decentralisation and participation is defined by the processes that seek to empower local communities, and influence the
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interface between the local government officials and the local communities. Figure 2.1 below details the processes involved:
Figure 2.1: Determinants of level of local participation
Source: Own illustration
The extent to which service providers operate on the one hand and the level of participation of local communities on the other is determined by the above- mentioned factors. These factors are explained below:
2.6.1.1. Empowerment
The extent to which the local communities are empowered determines the interface between the local government and local communities. Empowerment is a multi-dimensional process that helps local communities to gain control over their own lives (Page and Czuba, 1999, cited in Benini, 2009:10). It fosters power (capacity) in people by acting on issues that they define as important. It is always considered in terms of the poor people in relation to the powerful in the society. Therefore, empowerment entails the shift of power from those who held power to those who have had no power before. In this regard, the local government officials ensure that the local communities take on their role in making decisions about their welfare. Besides decision-making and control, the World Bank Development report 2000-01 applied the empowerment concept to two themes – making state
Decentralisation reforms Empowerment Participatory structures Information Capacity Attitudinal change Level of participation of local communities
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institutions more responsive to the poor and removing social barriers and building social institutions (World Bank, 2001:5).
2.6.1.2. Participatory structures
Chiweza (2010: 44) observes that the participatory structures established at district and sub-district levels serve to enhance the interaction between council officials and the people. These structures facilitate community organisation, and provide the opportunity for local government officials to engage local communities. Through these committees, District Councils ensure popular participation of the local communities through information- sharing of various issues of interest, such as financial information in planning and implementation of projects (Chiweza, 2010:44). They also facilitate the discussion and prioritisation of community projects. Therefore, the extent to which participatory development is realised depends on the activeness and capacity of these participatory structures.
2.6.1.3. Capacity
Plummer (1999:128) states that knowledge and skills are essential for the people to participate effectively in the development of their areas and meaningfully engage the service providers to offer technical support in project management activities. In this regard, basic capabilities are required to formulate local plans through the assessment of community problems and issues and management of project activities using the District Development Planning System (DDPS). Chiweza (2010:43) observes that based on the bottom-up principle, the DDPS provides the greatest opportunity for local communities to participate in local development process. The DDPS spells out the processes and stages of the local development processes from planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Besides offering an opportunity for participation, the products of the DDPS, namely the VAPs and DDPs, require periodical review so that they remain relevant to the needs of the local communities.
19 2.6.1.4. Attitudinal change
The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (1995) defines attitude as a way of thinking about or behaving towards something. The extent to which decentralisation impacts participatory development depends on the attitude of local communities on one hand and that of local leaders and public officials on the other. Civic consciousness, political maturity and positive local commitment from local communities enhance participatory development (Smith, 1985:88). Kuliposa (2004:775) argues that the success of decentralisation depends on the quality of key local leaders. Where local leaders dominate the interest of the communities, democracy and free expression are stifled, leading to less effective participation (Tosun, 2000:621). In addition, if public officers exhibit an attitude of general dislike for and suspicion of community participation (Ababio, 2004:278), decentralisation may not achieve participatory development.
2.6.2. LEVELS OF PARTICIPATION
De Campos Guimaraes (2009:5) argues that development must not be “delivered” but people must be engaged to identify their own needs and strengthen their abilities to improve their own conditions. However, the extent to which local communities are engaged in the development varies. In Table 2.1, Pimber and Pretty (1997:309) elaborate on types of participation that are distinguished from each other depending on what Paul (1997:3) describes as “intensity of participation”.
20 Table 2. 1 Ladder of participation
Type of participation
Some components and characteristics
Passive participation
People are told what is going to happen or has already happened. Top-down information shared belongs only to external professionals. It is equivalent to manipulation or therapy.
Participation in information giving
People answer questions posed by extractive researchers, using surveys etc. People not able to influence research. It is a form of tokenism in which information is given but no direct participatory benefits. Participation
by
consultation
People are consulted and external agents listen to their views, usually externally defined problems and solutions. People not really involved in decision-making. People hear and have a voice but cannot influence change.
Participation by material incentives
Provision of resources e. g. bricks, sand, labour. Little incentives to participate after the incentives end, for example, much farm research, some community forest. It is a form of placation in which people act within the rules set by outsiders.
Functional participation
Groups are formed to meet pre-determined objectives, usually done after major project decisions are made, therefore, initially dependent on outsiders but may become self-dependent and enabling participation as organisation. Through community committees people can negotiate in form of partnership.
Interactive participation
Joint analysis to joint actions, possible use of new local institutions or strengthening existing ones. Enabling and empowering and people have a stake in managing structures or practices.
Self- motivation
Already empowered, take decisions independently of external institutions, may or may not challenge existing inequitable distribution of wealth and power. Participation as empowering. This is equivalent to citizen control.
Source: Adapted from Pimbert and Pretty, 1997:309 and Arstein, 1969:217
Arstein (1969:217) and Plummer (1999:3) summarise the above ladder of participation in three broad categories of participation, namely non- participation, tokenism and citizen participation. Non-participation is equivalent to manipulative and therapeutic participation in which local communities are passive participants. They have no decision-making powers. This category of participation is a substitute for genuine participation. Tokenism is the interaction between service providers and local communities which is characterised by information-giving, consultation and placation.
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Participation in information-giving and consultation takes place when people hear or have a voice but lack the power to change the status quo, while placation allows communities to advise but the right to decide remains with the service providers. Finally, citizen participation is associated with partnerships, delegated power and citizen power. In partnerships, local communities are able to negotiate and engage the local government in trade- offs. In both delegated power and citizen control, there is citizen power when the local communities attain managerial power and have decision-making clout (Arstein, 1969:217).
2.7 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR LOCAL GOVERNEMNT IN MALAWI