Longitudinal Advertising Study, 1909-1980s

As highlighted in section 4.6, a pilot study was conducted where historical analysis was employed, using content analysis to offer qualitative meanings to contents identified. This allowed understanding past phenomena in order to understand the present branding strategies.

Samples of eighty-two magazine copies of Castrol adverts from the 1920s to 1980s were analysed.

Results from the 1920s to 1950s reveal the brand was developed to create what Rosenbaum-Elliott et al. (2011) called ‘top of mind awareness’, by being visible, influencing brand image in the consumer's mind, thus creating awareness while developing associations. The brand strategy adopted at this stage was not focused on the brand itself, but on the brand attributes building emotional attachments with consumers. Consistently, advert copies used phrases, such as: “Universally recognised as the standard by which others are judged”, “It’s cheaper to buy W. Castrol than to pay for repairs” and “Peerless lubricants”, to connect with

customers. This is consistent with Kim and Hyun (2011), who found that brand awareness with associations affects the overall value of a brand. Castrol foregrounded innovation, sponsorship of competitive events followed by vigorous advertising of sporting victories, product development coupled with alliances with leading marques, such as Rolls Royce and Daimler (Jallo and Croft, 2014).

Consistent with Dean's (1999) proposition that endorsement has a positive effect on quality and uniqueness while improving brand image, the findings indicated from its early days that the brand was endorsed by celebrities and royalties. As the advert copies emphatically stated:

“His Majesty the King/over 250 leading motor manufacturer”, “His majesty the King of England and HRH the Prince of Wales”, and “Napier-Railton land speed racer recommends W.C”. The results further support the findings of Silvera and Austad (2004), Yeungjo and Junehee (2007), Lee and Thorson (2008), Koernig and Boyd (2009) and Dix and Chowdry (2010), who posited customer attitude towards the endorser has a positive effect on the brand advertised. Linking the brand with celebrities, royalties and racing events enhances recognition, performance and provide brand identity with a consistently strong brand image while building associations. This helped to position the brand in the mind of the target consumer, stimulating positive perception.

However, studies from the 1950s post-war period suggest a shift in strategy with endorsement by car manufacturers rather than celebrities and royalty. Hence, brand recognition and association with leading car manufacturers are built. Advert copies consistently highlighted this with statements, such as: “Porsche recommends Castrol M. Oil”, “BMC recommend Castrol for Morris and Austin mini”, and “Trojan ltd recommend Castrol”. At this stage, the brand has matured to a favourable position in the market by urging B2C consumers to buy the brand and service their engines in garages, thereby building a strong brand relationship (Kalafatis et al., 2012).

The study tracked changing trends in consumer buying behaviour where originally consumers employed mechanics and garages to change their oil, with phrases such as, “Get them at your local garage”, “Castrol is obtainable in all garages”, Castrol Lubrequipment service station” and “Obtain your lube in garages, stores”. To the situation from the 1960s when the DIY market started to evolve, incorporating phrases such as, “motorcycle dealer or motor accessory dealer, Oil change (garage or DIY)”, and “Available from garages, accessory

and the 1960s, where metal tins were used to package the brand. The results revealed plastic packaging replaced metal cans in the 1980s, signifying Castrol’s innovation in the point-of-sale arena (Jallo and Croft, 2014). This is consistent with Persson (2010), who found packaging was used as a sales tool to create value to the end-customer.

The findings suggest customer target by using functional, emotional and self-expressive benefits, indicating emotional branding. The study identified different branding strategies used by Castrol to build the motor oil image around innovation, performance, efficiency and reliability (Jallo and Croft, 2014). The advert copies consistently highlighted this with statements, such as, “Peerless lubricants”, “The product of an all British firm”, “If there were a better oil than W.C. I should use it” and “Reduces cylinder wear, reduces oil consumption”. The message strategy aimed to create customer perception of superior value by integrating features of the brand that would have been of interest to motorists (although it has to be noted that, until the post-war years, these drivers would not have bought motor oil themselves, but instead were being encouraged to specify Castrol to their mechanics). This is consistent with previous research (e.g. Jensen and Klastrup, 2008; Lynch and de Chernatony, 2007), who support that emotions play a role in conveying brand value in a business-to-business context. It also supports Abratt (1986), Aaker (1991) and Bendixen et al. (2004) whose findings advocated that functional benefits influence brand performance. Moreover, Leek and Christodoulides (2012), who found that both the functional and emotional qualities associated with a brand, provide a differential advantage and influence the delivery of brand value.

Analysis from the 1960s to the 1980s shows the use of emotion by expressing the brand's functional attributes having been tested over the years, as the following comments from the advert copies emphatically stated: “Improved Castrol. Perfected in the lab, proved on road and track”, “The more ordinary your motoring, the more you need it”, “Can you afford anything less?”, “You can tell a man who cares for his car, he chooses Castrol”, “Full synthetic engineering” and “Liquid engineering”. Branding at this stage was built by differentiation, appearing as the leading brand, stressing the brand's unique characteristics (Jallo and Croft, 2014). This view is consistent with Leek and Christodoulides (2012) who advocated that functional benefits (i.e. technology, innovation quality and capacity) improve the value of the brand. Others Mudambi (2002) and Lynch and de Chernatony (2007) predicted that as a result of emotional values B2B brands influence a positive brand image.

This is also consistent with Wilson, (2000) who posited that image and emotional benefits influence purchase decisions in B2Cmarkets. Similarly, this supports Backhaus’ (2011) findings that brands that offer innovative features are more likely to create a distinct brand image to influence product specific brand equity.

5.1.1.1 Castrol Distribution Structure

The results clearly suggest the distribution structure had a positive impact on the brand performance with a call to purchase the brand in local garages from the 1920s to the 1940s.

The advert copies highlighted this with phrases, such as, “On sale in sealed tins or branded cabinets at garages”. This is consistent with Mudambi (2002) and van Riel et al. (2005), who found that distribution influences brand performance in the B2B market. As the brands mature, results show that Castrol uses the two level channel of distribution by using wholesalers for its brand distribution to stores (Jallo and Croft, 2014). Consumers were assured of its availability across the country by going into alliance with shops and retail stores such as Halfords, with phrase stating, “Available from garages, accessory shops and all branches of Halfords”. Results from the 1980s suggest that the oil is supplied to some car dealers directly from the manufacturer without the use of middlemen. This may perhaps indicate the strong position the brand occupies by having a trade agreement with OEM.

Castrol's investment in high-end technological branding, therefore, supports its commercial relationships with distributors of luxury motoring brands, in a symbiotic relationship where Castrol itself supports the carefully-nurtured branding of service departments in these outlets (Jallo and Croft, 2014).

5.1.1.2 Emerging Themes

The results from the Castrol study further reveal emerging themes. Corporate branding by highlighting and linking the brand name with the company, and an advertising copy from the early stages signified, “Wakefield Castrol motor oil”. Similar to prior studies (e.g. Keller, 2000 and Juntunen, 2011), this helped to create brand awareness, build a strong brand and favourable associations. The findings indicated the brand gradually changed from having an image as a corporate brand into a product brand in the mid-twentieth century, with copies having the words, “Castrol motor oil” and “Castrol (GTX)”. This suggests brand association through a focus on product performance features to generate awareness, value and personality. Alliances between established car manufacturers show the use of co-branding.

Similarly, endorsement and linking the brand with famous personalities indicates personal branding. The relationship between the brand and the target customer using functional, emotional and self-expressive benefits indicates emotional branding and brand identity. A unique selling proposition indicates brand positioning by expressing brand values and benefits to the consumer.

Table 5.1: Emerging themes

Traits Emerging themes

Co-branding Brand value, alliance, brand associations, brand equity, brand identity, brand attributes

Achievement Brand attributes, brand equity Intended audience B2C (National branding)

Packaging Brand recognition

USP Brand positioning, brand value, brand equity

Slogan Brand attributes, brand equity, national branding, brand differentiation, brand value

Call to action Brand alliance Celebrity endorsement Personal branding

Logo Corporate branding

All British brand National branding

Targeting the home market by stressing the phrase “all British brand” and royal endorsement indicates the country of origin, an attempt at national branding and brand association. The brand's value proposition, equity and benefits were constantly expressed in the analysis, indicating brand differentiation and claim of market leadership. Table 5.1 shows the themes that emerged from the study of Castrol adverts. Contrary to the researcher’s expectations, the emerged themes indicate the diverse marketing efforts of Castrol to differentiate and generate awareness.

The findings further suggest Castrol historically was a brand innovator, employing techniques like celebrity endorsement and co-branding, tools which tend to be associated with late twentieth-century branding. The longitudinal advertising study, therefore, presents a picture of a brand which in its early days was entirely business-to-business in terms of distribution, but where demand-pull was created by developing the brand personality, using

business-to-consumer advertising and PR appeals, combined with point-of-sale materials. Castrol appeared to evolve in the 1960s into a consumer brand, complete with TV and press advertising, distinctive packaging and a continuing sponsorship programme, all supported with effective retail distribution (Jallo and Croft, 2014). This also suggests the importance branding plays in commodity motor oil products, especially from the 1960s as the market became more competitive. The findings further indicate the hybrid nature of motor oil to target B2B and B2C segments of the market.