BEGINNING OF 21
STCENTURY
Muhamed Ali,МА
Lecturer, Faculty of Islamic Sciences, Skopje, Macedonia Ph.D. Candidate in International Law and Politics, Faculty of Law
"Justinianus Primus"
University "Ss. Cyril and Methodius" Skopje, Macedonia Abstract
As US foreign policy had in the past and still has serious implications on the Turkish diplomacy regarding Balkans and Middle East, thus it is considered as serious factor of Turkey’s EU integration. The political history of US foreign policy indicates that the approach and standpoint of US towards the integration process of Turkey to EU is positive and in various occasions appears as determining factor that intensifies the EU integration process of this country. The commencement of 2000s are considered as years of positive trends in terms of EU – Turkey relations, as it is the beginning of negotiation process between two sides. These years are characterized with a range of challenges as well, caused by internal and external factors that played significant role in the process of developing mutual relations. The approach of Turkish foreign policy towards Iraqi War (2003) intensified the positive trend on Turkey –EU relations, while taking into account the fact the entire integration of Turkey within EU beside meeting of economic and political criteria, depends on the harmonization of mutual approaches in the domain of international strategy and geo-policy. Except Iraqi War - Cyprus issue a contest that for decades determines the relations between Turkish and Greece, after the accession of Cyprus to EU became a new challenge in the process of Turkish integration in EU. However, we may conclude that one of the most important challenges of Turkey in the beginning of the 21st century is the course of its affairs with Greece.
Keywords: Turkey – EU relations, US factor, Iraqi War, Cyprus issue,
Turkish – Greek affairs.
Introduction
One of the most significant characteristics of foreign policy of newly formed Republic of Turkey of Mustafa Kemal Pasha was its pro-western
orientation. The beginning of the second half of the previous century witness the start of the process of full integration of Turkish state to EU, which is not yet finalised. It should be stated that American foreign policy regardless to the political elites in power, has continuously supported the process of Turkey’s integration within the united Europe. This support is initially based on the state interests of USA and Western block. The relations between Turkey and EU in the 21st century face several challenges. In this context we can distinct, Iraqi war, Cyprus question and Turkish-Greek relations. In this paper we will provide a short historical overview on Turkish-EU relations, and then we will analyse the factors having impact on American support to Turkey’s integration into EU. At the end we will strive to highlight Turkey- EU challenges at the beginning of the 21st century.
A brief historical overview of Turkey – EU relations
After the commencement of the realization of the historical aspiration of European nations for unification and integration within the united Europe, Turkish foreign policy, which during Ataturk time had pro-western orientation, made the first steps towards integration of Turkey within the community of European nations. So on 31st of July, 1959 Turkish state submitted the application for accession to EEC (European Economic Community). This date per se symbolises the beginning of the long path in the process of Turkey’s integration within European community. One of the main determinants that implicated this application for membership to EEC was the political act of Greek foreign policy, which two weeks before (15th of July) applied for accession to this community. However, the will of Turkish political authorities for accession to these vital European institutions was an additional agent of the aforementioned decision of Turkish state. Turkish application for accession to EEC was refused, with a justification that Turkey still was not developed sufficiently to undertake the obligations deriving from the accession act to EEC. As an alternative of accession, EEC offered Turkey Agreement on Partnership that according to the European authorities supposed to have temporal character until the complete achievement of accession conditions for full member of this community. On 12th of September 1963 in Ankara was signed the Agreement between Turkey and EEC, known as Ankara Agreement, that came in force on 1st of December 1964. Its aim was to open the path of Turkey for full membership in this community.1 At the same time, the goal of this agreement was the
1
See Yiğit, Devrim, Avrupa Birliği Genişleme Sürecinde Avrupa Birliği – Türkiye İlşkileri
(master thesis), D.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Diyarbakır, 2006, p.90; Ergin, Koray, Kopenhag Kriterleri Bağlamında Türkiye – AB İlşkileri 1993-2004 (master thesis), A.K.Ü.
integration of Turkish economy in the Common European Market and development of mutual relations in trade and economy, aiming to develop Turkish economy and to enhance the quality of life standard of Turkish people. According to this agreement, the process of development of Turkish- EEC relations supposed to pass through three periods: preparation period,
transition, and final period. The first period of Turkey – EEC relations lasted
from 1964 to 1972, then due to the signing of the Additional Protocol between Turkey and EEC (1970) the transition period started, that above all was relied on mutual obligations. Still, according to this protocol was envisaged a gradual implementation of Customs Union between Turkey and EC (European Community). This act supposed to represent a vital step of Turkey’s integration within European common family.2
However, apart from the steps undertaken for intensification of relations between Turkey and EC, still 1970s and the first half of 1980s are considered the period of declination of their mutual relations. There shouldn’t be neglected the fact, that apart from the political and economical factors, the coup d'état of Turkish Army
(12th September 1980) against the democratically elected government can be considered as main factor, that provided additional impulse in deterioration of the above mentioned relations. After the establishment of civil and democratic power in Turkey (in 1983), started the new era of Turkey - EC relations. In April 1987 even three foreseen periods of Ankara Agreement were not finalized yet, Turkey decided to submit a request for full accession to this community. On 18th of December 1989 EC refused the request of Turkey, elaborating that it is not ready to receive new members before finalizing the internal integration between the existing member states. In this elaboration of EC was emphasized the need of further economic, political and social development of Turkey, mutual relations to be developed within the frame of Agreement for Partnership signed by both sides.3 After this, EC regarding the Turkish integration, the preparations for finalisation of Customs Union started, as it was foreseen according to the Additional Protocol. So as a result of the taken decision at the meeting of the Council for Partnership,4 on 1st of January 1996 Customs Union came in force, by what Turkey –EU relations entered the final phase (period).5 We can
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Afyonkarahisar, 2006, p.4,5; See Bashkurti, Lisen, Evropa
Ballkani dhe sfida e Kosovës, GEER, Tiranë, 2006, p. 161-219
2 Ergin, Op.cit., p. 6,7;Yiğit, Op.cit., p. 91,92, www.abgs.com.tr.
3 In the rapport of EC in terms of the development of relations within the Agreement for
Partnership some significant elements are emphasized, such as: Finalization of Customs Union to 1995, intensification of financial and industrial cooperation, development of scientific and technological cooperation, enhancement of scientific and technological cooperation, enhancement of cultural and political relations. See Ergin, Op.cit., p.12.
4 Body of Agreement for Partnership.
consider the Customs Union as one of the most important moments in the history of integration of Turkey in the European family. The beginning of the 21st century meant a new moment in the process of development of Turkish– EU relations.6 Namely, in the threshold of the beginning of the new century, in the Summit of Helsinki, that took place during 10th and 11th of December 1999, EU took decision for official recognition of Turkey’s candidate status. At the same time, in this Summit of leaders EU member states, enacted the decision for preparation of Accession Partnership Document for Turkey as it was the case with other candidate states for joining EU. On 8th of March 2001 the Council of Europe approved the first Accession Partnership Document of Turkey towards EU.7 In this context, in December 2002, in the historical summit of EU leaders that took place in Copenhagen, was affirmed the willingness of EU leaders for the beginning of accession negotiations with Turkey, when it will meet Copenhagen criteria. It should be underlined that after the Summit of Helsinki, as a result of newly created climate between Turkey and EU, Turkish state launched vital reforms, in order to accelerate its integration to EU. In 2001, changes and reforms of the constitutions of the state started and in January 2002, the new civil code came in force, through what Turkish authorities made a huge step in their road towards intensification of the democratization of the state and society and their closer approach towards western standards.8 Apart from the abovementioned steps, between 2002 and 2004, Turkish authorities through an eight package reforms9 that amended 218 articles of 53 laws in total, undertook additional steps towards harmonisation of the Turkish regulation with the EU legislation. In terms of more efficient implementation of reforms obtained as a result of integration process, in 2003 Turkish government established the Group for Supervision of Reforms that provided additional contribution in the process of expanding of the democratisation of Turkish society. As a result of the abovementioned reforms, in 2004 EU Commission published the report marking significant progress of Turkey, especially in the context of fulfilment of political criteria. So, on 17th of December, the same year, in the margins of the Summit of leaders of EU, held in Brussels, were
6
About Turkey –EU relations see: Arıkan, Harun, Turkey and the EU: An Awkward
Candidate for EU Membership?, Ashgate Publishing, Hampshire, 2006.
7 www.abgs.com.tr; www.mfa.gov.tr
8 Dura, Cihan (et.al.), Avrupa Birliği Gümrük Birliği Ve Türkiye, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım,
Ankara, 2007, стр.560-566, www.mfa.gov.tr.
9
Chronological layout of package reforms for reconciliation of Turkish regulation with the European regulation is as follows: I. package reforms – 19 February 2002, II. package reforms – 9 April 2002, III. package reforms – 9 August 2002, IV. package reforms – 11 January 2003, V. package reforms – 4 February 2003, VI. package reforms – 19 July 2003, VII. package reforms– 7 August 2003, VIII. package reforms – 14 July 2004. www.mfa.gov.tr .
regarded positive steps of Turkish state in its path towards the fulfilment of euro integration criteria and on 3rd of September 2005 recommendations for accession negotiations were given. This event was a vital momentum in the history of relations between EU and Turkey. We need to emphasize too, that in the context of harmonisation of Turkish regulation with the European legislation on 12th of April 2006 the ninth package of reforms came in force, so Turkey made a significant step in its way towards EU integration.10 On 12th of June 2006 an intergovernmental conference between Turkey and EU took place, where the first chapter was opened and covered.
Apart from the blockage of the 18 chapters of negotiations, as a result of activities of some particular EU member states, we can conclude that the positive trend of opening of new chapters in the context of negotiations between Turkey and EU continued from 2008 to 2010. Namely, we can conclude that expansion of democratic reforms by the government of Erdogan is an additional impulse in terms of intensification of Turkey’s integration to EU. So, the opening of TV channels for other ethnicities in the Turkish society (opening of state TV channel in Kurdish language) and the empowerment of the function of general secretariat for euro integration are just some of these good practices. The amendment of 20 articles of the Turkish constitution supported by the Turkish nation through the Package Reforms of Constitution voted by the referendum on 12th September 201011, marking a serious struggle of Erdogan’s government against underground structures, that through various of segments and methods traditionally had vital impact on the process of declination of Turkish democratic processes12 and new preparations of Turkish government for producing of a new constitution complying with the democratic principles of developed states are vital steps of Turkish path for integration to EU.
The impact of United States factor within EU integration process of Turkish state and the main challenges of Turkey – EU relations at the beginning of the 21st century
Foreign policy of United States had and still has serious impact on the Turkish diplomacy on Balkans and Middle East. It is still considered as
10 In terms of the harmonisation of Turkish foreign policy with the one of EU, especially in
the domain of energetic policy see Sökmen, Serhat, The European Union Energy Law And
Policy And The Harmonization Of Turkish Legislation To Those Politics (master thesis),
Bahçeşehir University, İstanbul, 2009.
11 www.mfa.gov.tr 12
Lately one of the most vital fight of Erdogan’s government is the fight against the organization Ergenekon, that is accused of preparation coup d’état and removal of democratically elected Government of Turkey.
serious factor in the process of Turkish euro integration. Namely, political history of US foreign policy is positive with a clear approach and the standing of USA in favour of the process of Turkish integration to EU. In plenty of cases US is a determining factor, that intensifies euro integration processes of this country.
During 1990s foreign policy of US had important role in the key moments of the process of euro integration of Turkey, as well. So, during 1995 in the threshold of the enactment of Customs Union between Turkey and EU, before the Summit of Luxemburg (1997) and Helsinki (1999) – key summits for the Turkish candidate status of Turkey – and during the Summit of G-8 held in Germany, American authorities led by President Clinton, State Secretaries and ambassadors had intensive activities for convincing the European political elites about the strategic, political and economic benefit by the Turkish integration. The abovementioned activities of the American authorities, except the summit of Luxemburg, were positively accepted by EU counterparts. In the course of 1990s the Customs Union between Turkey and EU came in force, and Turkey received candidate status for full membership to EU.13 In this context, there is a need to explain the key factors that determine American support of Turkey in its efforts towards joining EU. These are the main reasons and factors that have serious impact on the aforementioned US policy:
- after the end of Cold War, one of the major commitments of American foreign policy was its factorisation and transformation into a key factor in Eurasia, a region where Turkey has very important geostrategic and geopolitical position. After England, the accession of Turkey to EU would have meant increase of US impact in the eurasiatic region.
- joining of Turkey to EU will strengthen up its relations with EU. That approach will bring it closer to western values and will avoid possible establishment of Islamic regime that can represent a threat to the western world. All that can cause a risk to equilibrium of Middle East and Western policies in Middle Asia. Bearing in mind the power of Turkish army, the membership of Turkey to EU means its active inclusion in the possible European defensive structure. In long term plan, we can consider that till large extent can be facilitated and intensified the cooperation of NATO with the possible European defensive structure, where except England, Turkey participates, too.14
13
Erdoğan, M. Mehmet, Soğuk Savaş Sonrasında Türkiye Avrupa Birliği İlişkileri 1990 –
2005 (докторска дизертација), A.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara, 2006, стр. 405,
406; Yıldız, Ahmet, Türkiye’nin Balkanlarda Etkin Bir Politika İzlemesinin Avrupa Birliği
Olan İlişkilere Etkileri (магистерска теза), T.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Edirne, 2006,
p. 95.
- there are several opinions (like Samuel Huntington) that stated that Turkish accession to EU is impossible. Still the support of USA to this project has one aim, weakening the positions of EU to the international arena.15
We need to underline that the attacks of September 11 had serious reflections on the strategic concept and opinions of European political elites, towards the importance of Turkish integration to EU. In this context we can quote the opinion of the German minister of foreign affairs from 1998 – 2005 Fischer (Joscka Fischer), who sad that the attacks of September 11 had about 51% positive impact and 49% negative impact on the Turkish accession to EU. Since then, I believe that the unification of Europe has strategic aspects as well, that can not be achieved without accession of Turkey that largely can contribute to the Foreign and Security Policy of EU.16
The beginning of 2000s is considered a period when Turkey-EU relations apart from positive trends – as it was the commencement of the process of negotiations between two sides – is characterised with certain challenges caused by the internal and external factors, that played important role in the process of development of mutual relations. In fact, one of the most influential challenges that determines the relations between Turkey and EU in this period is the Iraqi war (2003). In this context, we need to stress, that the stand of Turkey on this war, which was in harmony with the one of EU leading countries, France and Germany, opposing the American policies and strategies, enabled mutual strengthening of relations between Turkey and EU, and relative declination of Turkish-US relations. So as a result of these events, the image of Turkey in the prospect of EU political elites from a “security consumption” country, as it was in the period of political insecurity (during 1990s) was transformed to “security production” country. At the same time, the standing of Turkey towards Iraqi War intensified the positive trend of Turkey-EU relations, bearing in mind the fact that the entire integration of Turkey to this institution, apart from the fulfilment of political and economical criteria, depends on the harmonisation of its standings with those of EU in the domain of international strategy and geo-policy. Positive communication of the most important European political elites during this period, the President of EU Commission Romano Prodi, Senior Representative of EU Javier Solana, Canceller of Germany Gerhard Schröder, French president Jasques Chirac upon the intensification of the process of integration of Turkish state with a lot of significant events, reflect
15 Yıldız Op.cit., p.97.
the strategic approach of European elites on Turkish integration.17 However, now surprises the fact that leaders of both abovementioned supportive countries (Germany and France) Angela Merkel and Nicholas Sarkozy turned into a locomotive and symbol of European resistance on Turkish euro integration. In this context, we need to underline that the harmonisation of strategic standings of Turkey with those of EU in the case of Iraqi War, was