Management Implications and Options

Understanding the home range size and habitat selection of parturient and post- parturient female moose with young provides a missing piece for the management of this newly established population. Moose management options will depend on society’s desire to maintain a moose population in this agriculture dominated landscape and society’s tolerance of moose-human conflicts, such as crop and tree damage, and moose- vehicle collisions (MVCs).

Wetland and riparian habitat including trees and shrubs are important to

reproductive female moose in a landscape dominated by agriculture. Conservation and land management practices and policies will need to be revisited. Highly fragmented habitat, such as the wetlands surrounded by agricultural cropland in my study area, is often considered sink habitat surrounded by non-habitat (Herkert 1994, Donovan et al 1995). My research findings show that moose require wetlands and riparian habitat for successful reproduction during parturition and post-parturition. As such, these

fragmented habitat patches (i.e., wetlands) surrounded by cropland have higher conservation value than originally thought. In order to maintain a healthy moose

population with reproductive success semi-permanent and permanent wetlands with trees and shrubs should be conserved. New approaches to land management such as the Water Security Agency’s Saskatchewan Agricultural Water Management Strategy should consider the value these wetlands have to wildlife (Water Security Agency 2019). Non- government organizations that focus on conservation through land management, such as the Nature Conservancy of Canada and Ducks Unlimited Canada, typically focus conservation efforts on intact and connected upland and wetland habitats. However, my research suggests that patches of wetland habitat are important to parturient and post-

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parturient moose, therefore, these organizations should reconsider the conservation benefit of wetland habitat patches surrounded by cropland. With appropriate protection measures in place, these wetland patches of habitat could also contribute to the Canada Target 1 goal set out by the Canadian federal government in 2015 (Canadian Parks Council 2019). The Canada Target 1 goal is to have at least 17% of terrestrial areas and inland water, and 10% of marine and coastal areas of Canada conserved through networks of protected areas and other effective area-based

measures by 2020 (Canadian Parks Council 2019). Effective conservation measures can include conservation easements, land ownership, or agreements that pay landowners for ecological goods and services. My results suggest that moose in this landscape likely benefit from habitat

enhancement efforts already taking place, including the restoration of wetlands which is a focus of many Ducks Unlimited Canada projects (Ducks Unlimited Canada 2019).

Alternatively, wetland and riparian habitat surrounded by cropland can be perceived as an unnecessary attractant for moose that can increase the risk of human-moose conflicts, such as MVCs and crop damage. In a landscape where the risk of MVCs was previously very low, it may be desirable to strategically remove some of these small areas of habitat to reduce such risk. Habitat with its associated forage and cover is likely the main predictor for moose to use areas in proximity to transportation corridors (Hurley et al. 2007, Becker et al. 2011). Risk management for large ungulate collisions often includes increased hunting or culling, habitat management and fencing along roads, and supplemental feeding to attract wildlife to areas away from roads (Weisberg and Bugmann 2003). Removal of wetland and riparian habitat near roads or installing fence between roads and adjacent wetland habitat would reduce the risk of MVCs. Underpasses and overpasses for wildlife to cross major road corridors are used when areas with high wildlife crossings are known (McCollister and van Manen 2010). Underpasses and overpasses are major infrastructure projects and more information on MVCs would need to be collected prior to development. In addition to the management of moose populations and habitat manipulation near roads, changes in human driving behaviour (i.e., speeding, distracted driving, slowing down in low light conditions) are also necessary to reduce the risk of MVCs (Seiler 2003, Child 2007). Driver awareness of the risk of MVCs should be increased through road signage and media campaigns (Child 2007). The Saskatchewan Wildlife Federation (SWF) and Saskatchewan Government Insurance (SGI) have partnered on a driver awareness campaign called “Moose on the Loose” (Golden West Broadcasting 2019).

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Landowners may choose to remove wetlands within their cropland, not only to increase productive acres, but also in an effort to reduce crop damage by wildlife that are attracted to these habitat patches. Laforge et al. (2016) suggests installing exclusion fencing around wetlands to prevent wildlife crop damage. However, this approach may prove ineffective as wildlife would move towards the wetland unaware that it is exclusion fenced and cause some level of crop damage regardless of whether they can access the wetland. Also, considerable investments in capital and time would be needed to install and maintain exclusion fencing around all wetlands surrounded by cropland

(VerCauteren et al. 2006).

Anthropogenic-caused habitat loss and fragmentation is common throughout North America and has been identified as one of the primary drivers of declines and extinctions in mammal populations (Kosydar et al. 2014). After understanding the habitat requirements of reproductive moose in this expanding population, management options will depend on society’s desire to maintain this moose population in this agriculture dominated landscape and ability to accept trade-offs between economic pressures and the natural environment. During a time when many other moose

populations in North America are in serious decline, the expansion and persistence of this population serves as an important case study and focus of future research.