Managing Resistance to Change 72 

Managers and researchers have for many years been seeking to find strategies to effectively manage resistance to change. An acceptance that there will be resistance to change and that this resistance needs to be managed, understood and mediated, allows organisations to plan how to effectively manage a change process before it occurs. (Lewin 1947, 1951; Coch and French, 1948; Beer and Nohira, 2000; Cummings and Worley 1997).

In considering there is resistance to change that needs to be effectively managed there is then a need to consider the strategies for effectively facilitating change outcomes. Kotter and Schlesinger (1979:111) identified a series of key strategies that can be used to deal with resistance to change. These strategies comprised: using communication to make staff aware of thee logic of the planned change, using participation to meaningfully engage staff in the process of change, facilitation of staff attitudes in order t drive support for the change program, negotiation with staff with a view to engaging in some form of exchange in order to generate reduced resistance to the change program, manipulation and co-optation which seek to covertly influence resistance to the change as well as directly win-over those demonstrating resistance to the change, and coercion whereby those directly resisting the change are threatened with adverse outcomes unless they support the change.

A staged approach to preparing effective strategies for managing resistance to change was also proposed by Pietersen (2002). This approach featured a similar emphasis on the importance of communication and employee participation and featured five steps for dealing with resistance to change. Firstly, to create a clear and compelling argument for change that articulates the logic behind the change proposal; secondly, to engage in regular and honest communication throughout the process of the change

program; thirdly, to maximise the participation of affected staff at every stage of the change program; fourthly, to directly engage with, and indeed challenge, those staff who remain key resisters to the change process; and fifthly, to maintain a focus on short-term wins through the change process so as to maximise a positive focus for the change program (2002:34-37).

A further model of managing resistance to change was articulated by Dunphy and Stace (1988) in their identification of contrasting theories of organisational change, that is incremental and transformative change, as well as contrasting methods of change, that is participation and coercion. From this analysis they identified four strategies for managing change that featured; participative evolution, charismatic transformation, forced evolution and dictatorial transformation (1988:327).

A key aspect of change management is to manage staff resistance by encouraging acceptance of the forthcoming change, gain cooperation during the change process and with any new practices as a result of the change. The manner in which change is communicated by management and the extent to which employees are afforded participation in decision making represent key strategies for managing resistance to workplace change (Bordia, Hobman, Jones, Gallois, and Callan, 2004).

Differences of perceptions between participants within the change process is likely to lead to greater anxiety around change and a failure to effectively facilitate the change process (Bordia et al 2004; Allen et al 2007). The authors point to the importance of engaging the participants within the change process. Indeed the concept of engaging employees in the change process as a means of ensuring successful change was observed early in formal change management research.

One of the ways of dealing with resistance to change is through communication. By giving meaning to the nature of change, through a clear communication that the change will result in differences to what is currently operating, allows for a greater understanding that there is in turn likely to be anxiety towards the change and a need to consider how to manage this anxiety (Cummings and Worley, 1997; Folger and Skarlicki, 1999). This has made the role of organisational communication so important in the change management literature (Schweiger and Denisi, 1991; Lines,

2005; Allen et al, 2007; Martin and Huq, 2007). For instance, Allen et al (2007) identified that resistance to change primarily comes about through the uncertainty of change and that effective communication is a successful strategy for addressing change management. They wrote that: ‘it is important to identify the processes through which employees acquire information during change and the factors that influence their attitudes and intentions towards the change event’ (Allen et al, 2007:188).

Alternatively, the avoidance of communication about change has the impact of increasing anxiety about a change process and is in turn likely to lead to the change not being effectively implemented (Schweiger and Denis, 1991; Folger and Skarlicki, 1999; London, 2001). The extent to which the absence of communicating the change by those initiating the change, particularly when they are clear that it is going to take place, was illustrated by Schweiger and Denisi (1991): ‘Regardless of its cause, any failure to communicate leaves employees uncertain about their futures, and it is often that uncertainty, rather than the changes themselves, that is so stressful for employees’ (1991:110). Thus there is compelling evidence that communication with employees is a key component of delivering successful change.

Lines (2005) considered the role of the individual in effective change management in his exploration of attitudes towards organisational change. His work explored communication change to the wider organisational actors, as well as the need to be conscious that communication also needs to be specific for those directly affected by the change with a view to motivating and gaining cooperation from those individuals.

Bordia et al (2004:513) identified two types of change related communication strategies that can enhance change outcomes. These included the provision of information for employees about the proposed changes thus reducing the level of uncertainty and also utilising a participative mechanism which engages staff in the decision making process. The authors found that when employees are provided with access to information it allows them to develop a better understanding of the nature and consequences of change, and where they are able to participate in the ‘tactical’ decisions associated with change, employees’ acceptance and openness will usually increase (Bordia, et al, 2004).

The notion that participation by those affected by change enhanced the management of change was identified first by Coch and French (1948). Their work, undertaken at a pyjama factory in Virginia in the US examined issues relating to resistance to change by employees. They wrote: ‘groups that were allowed to participate in the design and implementation of the changes have much lower resistance than those that do not, participation through representation results in slower recovery than does total participation’ (1948:524).

The identification that employee participation in the process of change represents a way of managing resistance and bringing about successful change is a key theme in this thesis and will be explored further in Section 3.5