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Maréchal only solves the Kantian problem of knowledge by arguing that the intellect is directed, in spits of itself, towards

V impetus to the mind to go beyond phenomena to seek "la connaissance %

1. Maréchal only solves the Kantian problem of knowledge by arguing that the intellect is directed, in spits of itself, towards

transcendental knowledge. It is the reality of this orientation that Blondel attempted to prove in L'Action (l889).

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-in fact (though not explicitly) make a distinction between abstract reasoning and reasoning about abstractions, nliereas the first is indispensable and can be in touch with reality, the latter is a trap into which many philosophers fall; it is the abstraction operated by the mind which reduces "toute la riche réalité qui s'offre à nous, pour ne garder alors qu'un sujet à priori conceptuel et idéal, dont le monde -

un monde tout aussi conceptuel - se déduirait comme un absolu" (p. 19). Defever favours a continuai oscillation or movement between the concept and its object in the manner of Bergson's "va-et-vieht" mentioned in "L'Effort Intellectuel" (P.M.. p. 942). Contact with the existent is

desirable at all times; otherwise the mind's object becomes a mere

representation. The power to abstract itself from its object constitutes 'the intellect's greatest virtue and yet its gravest peril. The virtue

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. lies in the ability to transcend the particular and quantitative to '-aeize the 'essence' and the peril in the-tendency of mind to detach

itself from sense data.

Everything that is icnown is known through intimate liaison with the world outside:

Nous ne passons de l'inconscience à la conscience que par et dans nos activités; or, celles-ci ne pouvant être parfaitement immanentes .. .• portent nécessairement sur une chose sensible; nous ne pouvons nous connaître qu’à travers l'objet sensible de notre activité (p. 13)*

Defever comments that "l'exigence thomiste rejoint sur ce point celle des existentialistes" (p. 15)» although in fact it is closer to Blondel. For Defever, as for Blondel and Bergson, experience surpasses sense perception alone. Consciousness is never submerged in the perception of material

objects: "elle implique toujours.en outre, la conscience d'avoir conscience de l'objet, donc de le transcender" (_p. 14). The significance of this is Bergsonian, not Sartrian, for Defever wishes to establish the reality and

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importance of the inner witness of consciousness as a positive factor •i n Imowing and not as a néant, as in Sartre :

L'expérience externe doit donc se doubler de l'expérience interne, qui sera de l'ordre de l'intuition intellectuelle. Celle-ci, toutefois, engagée dans la perception sensible, reste d'abord implicite (p, 1$).

The relationship between subjective consciousness and objective reality is important, for the consciousness's ver;^’' adaptation to reality, its identity with its object, points to a cause of this identity which upholds and guarantees rationality in the world;

Constatons que cette identification intentionnelle du

sujet intelligent (intellectus), à travers l'objet immanent (intelligible), à l'objet réel (res), sous l'influx final - causal de celui-ci, vérifie à la fois la définition du jugement et celle de la vérité (p. 38)*

God is-therefore .the.creator and vindicator of the intellect's grasp of the real. As with'Maréchal and Maritain, in Defever the intuitive or apperceptive_aspect of intelligence.furnishes the best proof of God's existence. Chains of reasoning are prone to logical flaws. The observing intellect also sees beyond appearances;

sous l'objet sensible immédiat se dissimule, comme sous sa participation déficiente, l'existence pure et illimitée; c'est elle qui donne à notre acte de connaître, à travers les causes finies, sa réalité propre (p. 57).

No single existent contains its own "raison d'être" but relates to the totality of Being which is infinite: "l'être fini n'existe et n'est intelligible que dans la mesure où il participe de l'être qui existe infiniment par soi" (p. 68).

The difficulty with Defever's reasoning is that it is impossible to see how the last assertions can be proved or disproved. How could they be verified? The lack of a concrete reference - either in human psychology or in- science - lays Defever open to the charge he is eager

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to avoid « that of composing abstract proofs of God's existence. Etienne Gilson, primarily a historian of philosophy, also a Thomist philosopher in his ovm right, and was perhaps better placed than most to have a comprehensive view of the developments in Thomist thought as compared with the developments in contemporary philosophy. His own philosophical outlook was to undergo several radical changes in the course of his career. The influence of Bergson was pronounced from the beginning, for Gilson was one of the few 'professionnels' in Bergson's audinnce for the early 'conferences': "Que d'heures n'avons- nous pas consumé^en entretiens passionnés sur la dernière leçon de Bergson que nous venions de relire", he states in Le philosophe et la

théologie (Lib. A. Fayard, I96O, p. $l). Owing to his sympathy and first-hand knowledge of Bergsonism, Gilson avoided the excesses of the early Thomist critiqhe of Bergson: "Ils avaient partiellement raison," he says of these critics, "mais ils s'y sont mal pris" (Théologie et Philosophie. S. Thcma,s d'Aquin et Henri Bergson, 2 Conférences^).

Bergson had his revenge, for, ironically enough, in the long term, "cette rencontre apparaît d'ailleurs comme une redécouverte du vrai Saint Thomas d ’Aquin, que trop de nuances avaient dissimulé (id.).

For Gilson Bergson's main virtue consisted in his providing a stimulus to Catholic (Thomist) metaphysics:

Cette philosophic de Bergson, si impuissante à éclairer la religion, aurait pu être pour des philosophes chrétiens l'occasion d'un renouvellement de perspectives, le prélude à une nouvelle ère de fécondité doctrinale ... Il s'agissait de métamorphoser la philosophie nouvelle à la lumière du

thomisme ... (Le philosophe et la théologie, pp. 125-126).

1. S.l.n.d. This newspaper report is to be found in "Le fonUfBe?gson" of la Bibliothèque Jacques Doucet, Paris, under Gilson's name, but there is no indication as to the source or date of the article.

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Bergson reinstated an empirical method in metaphysics and valued experience as the best guide tc truth. In this he could, in Gilson's opinion, be compared to Aristotle (p. 129). Bergson's critique of the intellect was aimed at restoring tpue intellectual, enquiry:

Le philosophe selon le coeur de Bergson ne doit pas se contenter d'appliquer son esprit à la connaissance rationnelle des choses telles qu'elles sont, il s'emploie de tout son pouvoir à toujours mieux ajuster à la nature des choses la connaissance qu'il en a ... A cet égard, la philosophie de Bergson est une critique d'un certain mauvais usage de la raison conduite par une intelligence éprise de rigueur (p. 129).

Bergson's first major triumph (in L'Essai) was in releasing quali­ tative judgements from their reduction to quantitative ones. By removing the inner self from the dominion of space and the material measurement of time, Bergson won a great victory for-metaphysics: "pour la premiere fois depuis des siècles fa métaphysique osait livrer une bataille décisive, et la gagnait"-(p.--134)-.■ By-contrast, the older scholastic definition

of quality as an accident which completes substance in its being was still­ born and ineffective, failing to nail any target : "Ce n ’était rien dire de faux, ce n'était rien dire d'efficace" (p. 135).

In his own domain^, Bergson did some sound work - his theory of intuition vras of great significance, for Corate and Kant imagined that

they had rendered the possibility of metaphysical knowledge inconceivable. The false conception of intelligence assumed that it could only regulate the relations between fixed ideas; that all its activity lay in the discursive area and that it had no real capacity to apprehend externals.

Secondly, Bergson restored to theology the notion of an active God, whereas the high Thomists had rendered him, "toute statique, d'une essence 1. That of natural theology, in Gilson's opinion (see p. 177)

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dont la perfection consiste seulement à rester éternellement ce qu'elle est" (p. 168).

Gilson's own Thomism is clearly affected by his admiration for Bergson. His realism has two main aspects; the assurance of ^-the exis­ tence of the external world and,in addition, this significant corollary; the assurance that our intellect is conformed to external reality. He posits 'spirituality' as the condition for human.knowledge, since the spirit (or mind) can become other than itself; this is the ability to make for oneself what something else was only in itself; "Connaître une

chose, c'est une manière de la devenir" (Le Thomisme, J. Vrin, 1927, p. 229). This viewpoint, needless to say, is entirely Bergsonian, Gilson's conces­ sion to more conventional Thomism is to say that being-in-the-mind is

"L’espèce impresse"; that is, it is external being in a certain mode of existence; it is\ "l'intelligible ou le sensible de l'objet lui-même, Æeus-un-autre mode d'existence" (Le Thomisme, p. 2-54> note l). This seems

to be equivalent to saying that it is an image or a substitute for an object, but "il est capital de bien comprendre que l'espèce d'’m objet n'est pas un être, et l'objet d'un autre être; elle est l'objet même par mode d'espèce, c'est-à-dire l'objet considéré dans l'action et dans l’efficace qu'il exerce sur un sujet ..." (p. 234)* It is not the object as an image in the mind but in some way the object itself in its effect on the mind.

The second type of "espèce" in the mind is the "espèce expresse", which is in fact more like a concept; "Le concept n'est pas la chose, mais l'intellect qui le conçoit est, lui, véritablement la chose dont il se forme un concept" (Le Thomisme, p. 238),

Does this mean, then,' that in the case of "l'espèce impresse" the mind has a direct intuition of being as it exists? Gilson shies away from this. He says that the intellect 'becomes' the object while remaining

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itself and therefore does not know the object as object but through the |

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intellect’s life and capacities; j

II y a l’objet, qui n ’est pas saisi en soi par une 1 intuition; il y a la species, qui n ’est toujours que

l’objet; et n'est donc pas davantage saisie par une j intuition; il y a l'intellect informé par la species,

qui devient ainsi l'objet, et qui n'a non plus l'intuition j; directe de ce qu'il est par là devenu; il y a enfin le

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concept, première représentation consciente de l'objet ... |

(Le Thomisme, p. 238, note 2), ]

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In short, it appears that the object only 'comes to life' and is only t I known through conceptual understanding. But there is in Gilson's i;

research a very important conclusion, which highlights a new departure a for Thomism; that "aucune representation intermédiaire ne sépare donc l'objet du concept qui l'exprime, et c'est ce qui confère à notre connaissance con- 4'

ceptuelle son, objectivité" (id., italics in original). So the experience of existence is prio'îr to, anterior to,discursive analysis and representation p.f_tha object iin the. mind's, eye'. Knowledge of an object, preceded reflec­

tion upon it.

The true significance of Gilson's position rests on its faith in the individual experience. For Gilson the individual real gives rise to a universal notion of reality and not vice versa; something xrue gives rise to truth, and so on;

Enquêtant sur les conditions de possibilité d'un tel fait, nous comprenons que la naissance du concept présuppose la fécondation de l'intellect par le réel qu'il appréhende. Avant la vérité, il y a le vrai; avant 1'adéquation du jugement et du réel, il y a l'adéquation vécue de l'intellect même avec le réel; c'est parce qu’il le devient que l'intellect peut ensuite en concevoir l'essence. lÆais cètte méta­

physique réaliste elle-même n'est qu'une interprétation postérieure de l'évidence sensible initiale, de cette entrée de la chose en nous que nous appelons une sen­ sation (Le Réalisme Méthodique, Téqui, 1936, p. 8'2')'V

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move into transcendental realms to justify the sense of reality and he is unafraid to interpret 'adaequatio rei et intellectus’ as meaning that the intellect 'becomes' its object in an immaterial but real vray, and he places a new emphasis on the evidence of the senses rather than that of the intellectual 'species'. There is no veil between the inner and outer worlds:

Chaque fois qu'il s'agit pour nous de vérifier une existence, c'est au témoignage d'un ou de plusieurs de nos sens ... que nous recourons pour en décider (p. 197)f

Gilson also moves right away from the Thomist reverence for intelligence as such and postulates a theory of the whole mind or consciousness, taking Maréchal's tentative reunion of will and intellect a step further:

Ce n'est pas, à proprement parler, 1'intelligence ou le sens qui connaît, c'est l'homme qui connaît

par las sens et par l'intelligence (p. 507)* ' \

Gilson is not even just referring to man as consciousness, but to man in his material and concrete existence. In this he differs from-Bergson;-who tends to identify the self with consciousness. Therefore, the objects of sense perception (i.e. the particular existent) and of the intellect (i.e. the 'essence', or nature of a thing) are not rigidly separated; the two are reconciled in the awareness of the whole man:

Le fait initial de la connaissance, dont cette analyse n'est que l'approfondissement progressif, est donc la saisie directe d'une réalité intelligible, par un intellect que sert une sensibilité (Le

Thomisme, 1942 revision, p. 326, italics in original).

Biaise Romeyer, the Jesuit Professor of Philosophy at Le Puy, like Gilson underv/ent profound influence from Bergson from the time of his

youth. He had an early Bergsonian work. Le boh sens et les etudes classique! published for the first time in 19J? (at Clermont-Ferrand, Editions de

L'Epervier). In the postscript Romeyer revealed that he had enjoyed Bergson's close friendship between 1932 and 1939 (see pp. 55-56), visiting

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him for lengthy discussions. He deemed Ivlatière et Mémoire to be Bergson’s magisterial work (p. 54) and considered Plotinus to be the major influence on L'Evolution Créatrice. This led. Bergson "à faire

des fouilles du c&té des problèmes religieux" (pp. 54-55)- Romeyer wrote a sympathetic book on Bergson (Morale et Religion chez Bergson, Firmin- Didot, 1929) along these very lines, and also wrote a number of articles

1 on him .

Romeyer did some important work of his ovra on intuition, and came . to the conclusion that, although Aquinas had restricted man's knowledge of individual material objects to an abstract knowledge, nevertheless there was room for direct forms of intuition in other realms of percep­ tion. There is a clear connection between Bergson's intuition of 'la durée' in L'Essai (the self existing in time) and Romeyer's conclusion

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in "La doctrine de Saint Thomas sur la vérité" (Archives de Philosophie, Vol. Ill,'Cahier II, pp. 1-54) that reflection on our ovni mental acts allows us to perceive directly the existence of our soul. He v/rote:

L'âme atteint son existentialite concrete en ses intellections premières, cela dans la mesure même où, avant réflexion complète, elle en prend directe­ ment conscience parce que actuellement présente en elles ... Cette première connaissance ou perception expérimentale de l'ùme par elle-mème est consciente, donc actuelle, mais point réflexive (pp. 24-25, italics in original).

Knowledge of the soul (or self) and of God - both outside the scope of Aristotle's epistemology - are intuitive forms of knowledge in Aquinas's system thanks to St. Augustine's teachings on the subject. Further,

1. "Spiritualité et survie d'après Bergson" (Rev, de Phil., March-April 1935, pp. 117-156): "La liberté humaine d'après M. Bergson" (Rev. néo- soolastique. Vol. 35, 1955, PP- 190-219): "Autour du Bergsonisme" TÂrchives de Phil. Supp. bibliog. No. 2, 1946) and "Caractéristiques religieuses du spiritualisme de Bergson" (Archives de Phil., Vol.. 17,

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Aquinas gives man's intellectual knowledge of the material a 'spiritualizing* character, according to Romeyer. In other words, the intellect makes carter a spiritual form in the mind. This is why matter is not apprehended as

matter. However, 'spiritualizing' is not necessarily the saiûe as 'abstracting', which is merely a conceptualizing process:

Nos idées, soit de la matière, soit de l'esprit humain ne sont pas de purs abstraits, sortes d'atomes intentionnels détachés du réel, elles se rattachent, grace à ce minimum d'intuition in­ tellectuelle des singuliers qui nous revient, à ces singuliers eux-mémes (id., p. 1?, italics in original).

One's representation of the material "enveloppe une perception mentale de réalité ("St. Thomas et notre connaissance de l'esprit humain", Arch, de Phil., Vol. VI, Cahier 2, p.-108, my underlining). For Romeyer, the intellect actively moulds itself to the clay of

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material objects, responding to their stimulus. Romeyer's theory typifies the new Thomist approach, which assumes that things as

existing in time can be integrated into the realm of the intelligible - end this realm includes not only physical but also mental and spiritual realities. There must be at least two orders of the intellect: the ideal order (bearing no direct relation to existence) and the real order

(existence as thought)^.

In an article, "La liberté humaine d'après Henri Bergson (Revue néo-scolastique de phil., Vol. 35, 1935, PP» 190-219), Romeyer defends

1, R. Jolivet, neo-Thomist philosopher, named these faculties 'discours' and 'intuition', (Maritain, like Rousselot and Maréchal, saw a dis­ tinction between 'ratio' and 'intellectus'.) Jolivet wrote: "Le discours n'aboutirait jamais à rien de certain, si, par application à ses démarches successives des normes suprêmes de .,1a.certitude, il ne venait lui-même se résoudre et s'achever dans l'intuition des principes pre.miers de la raison" ("L'intuition intellectuelle" in Revue Thomiste, No. 15, 1952, pp. 55-54)* By and large, Julivet opposes Bergson. Ses, e.g., "De l'E.C. aux Deux Sources" in Revue Thomiste, May-June 1955,

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one of Bergson’s other, major theses; that of the freedom of the will. i Romeyer, in so doing, was facing not only positivist or determinist B

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opposition hut Catholic opposition too .

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