Mathematical Induction: The Strong Form

W . . varying amounts ol different mineral salts. Those ater IS a universal solvent and dissolves

t.ary quality ol water, but are Important in the llrOducing hardness do not affect the sant

nd boiler purposes H erdness ts defined as a

dan-.esbc use of water par1lcu1a�Y fOf 1aun<l r/ ⁸

total concentrabon ol calcrum (Ca ¹ ^·) ond 1110

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

magnesium (Mg ^2·) ions expressed as calcium carbonate (CaCOJ) (APHA, 1984). Ca ² · and Mg ^2• salts, the principal mineral constituents consume soap and precipitate as insoluble

compounds or soap curds. Until all the Ca2• and Mg2• are precipitated, no latter or washing action 1s obtained from the soap. The soap consuming power of water ls therefore a

measure of its hardness. Calcium and magnesium generally are dissolved as soluble bica r bonate (HC03·), but may change owing to heating, to the less soluble carbonate (C03 ² ·

l Which precipitates and is one of the sources of scales in distributing systems and hot water heaters. Hard water Is generally less corrosive than soft waters (Egbedeyi and Akmfemiwa, 1980).

Hardness could be " ^car bonate" o ^r "non-carbonate" 1n nature. This depends on the numerical slrength of the concentration of the contribuU ng Ions When the hardness Is numerically greater than the total of the carbonate and bicarbo nate alkalinities, the amount of ii corresponding lo the total alkalinity is called "ca ^r bonate hardness", and the amount in excess · t hardness" 11 is carbonate harllness when all the

1s referred to as "non-carbons e

�l ⁱ nity (both carbonate and bicarbonate) Is equal to the hardness (APHA, 1984).

ihe Eth . (EOTA) btrallon methOd was ^employed ¹⁰ esbmating the ylene-Olamlne-Tetra-AcetiC

hardness levels of the spring water sources

Prine/pie:

The . EOTA (CioH1 tO!Ni) ^011ts sodium salts to form b\tali)n method depends on the abihlY

,,,.L ^{nesium (Mg} ^l •) tons On lho add1oon

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of lhe dye, Eriochrome Black - T (Sodium sail of 1-(1-hydroxyl -2. naphlhanylazo) . 5.

nitro - 2- naphthol -4 . sulfonic acid) (EBT) to lhe solution containing Ca ⁱ⁺ or Mg ² • at a pH of 10 ⁺ 0.1 (APHA, 1992), a wine-red complex is fonned. When lhis solution is titrated against standard EDT A solution (a chelalor, which removes Ca ² ^• and Mg ² ^• ions from the dye), !he solution changes back to the original colour of the dye. In this way, EBT is used to indicate the end product of the titration of cai• and Mg ^2• ions togelher (total hardness).

Procedure:

To a 50ml water sample was added 1ml of ammonium buffer solution to ^g ^iv ^e a pH of 10.0-10.1. A rew drops of EBT were added, and the sample titrated against standard EDTA SOiution until the last reddish tinge disappeared. The colour at the end point or the titration is usuaUy blue. The titre value was recorded.

Calculation:

Hardness as

A'N· 5000Q

Volume of sample

Where· . _�

A" volume of the titranl EDTA used for the water samp II :: mg Cacol equivalent to 1ml EDTA btranl

• "MuttipllcatJon

• '

j I

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

95

3.5.3 ��;::t�r�: t

n�� amples for bacterlologlcal analysis and measurement for The major thrust he · , · · re is on stenhty" as much as possible. The container to be used for

s prev10us y stenhsed). The container is not opened until the point of sample collection 1 · 1 ..

· e container with the aid of a rope tied round its neck is lowered Into the sample collection Th .

water body to fill. The container is closed immediately and taken to the laboratory for analysis.

Measurement of collfonn organisms (Co/ifonn count)

The most common widespread danger associated with drinking water 1s contamlnabon, eittier dlrecUy or indirectly, by sewage, by other wastes, or by human or animal excrement ir such contamination is recent and ii among the contributo rs there are carriers of communicable enteric diseases, some of the h�ng causal agents may be present The drinking of water so contaminated o r its use in the preparation of certain foods may result in further cases of Infection. The recognit ion that microbial Infection ca n be waterbome has led lo the development of methods for the routine examlnallon to ensure that wate r Intended for h u rnan consumption Is tree from e xcremental pollution A mo re logical approach Is the deteclJon of organisms usually present In the raeoe s ol man and other warm-blood ed

ilFl'IT)aJs To· f ex'"',nental .,,Jlu tion, as well as ol the officacy ol

is serves as Indicators o "'" .,....

Wa:er treabnent and disln fect,ons The presence of such orgonlsms Indica tes the presence Of faecaJ malerials, and fndcates that intesb no1 pathogens could also be present

• j I

j

i l

'

I

l

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

96 Conversely, the absence of faecal commensal organisms indicates lhat pathogens are probably absent (WHO, 1984).

Two basic methods are used for the detection and enumeration of coliform organisms in water -the Multiple Tube Method (MTM) and the Membrane Filtration Method (MFM). The

� methods do not give slrictly comparable results, one reason being that counts on memb ra ne filters do not give indication of gas production from lactose. but for practical

purposes, they do yield comparable information (APHA, 1998).

For raw water, the detection of coliform bacteria and faecal coliforms may be an adequate guide lo the microbial quality of the water. In the control or water treatment processes, COfiform organisms (total coliforms) sho uld not be detectable in finished water. Should CO!iforms be present in a water suppl y, 11 Is then important that confirmation and differentiation be taken as far as possible in order to determi ne if the contamination Is faecal Ml origin and lo be a ble to trace i ts source (WHO 1984). For this study, the Membrane Filtratio n Method (MFM) was empk>yed.

Prine/pie:

� is on f . i·iorm organisms In water. It lnvolves filtering a e o the methods of esttmabng co 1

�asur"" lh ough ⁸ membrane filter composed of cellulose

"" volume of the water sample �

tiler, Th . 1 diameter All types of bacteria present in the 8Y are usually of pore size O 45um n

Iii!�, By incubab09 tho membran e filler f9C8

are re1ained on the surface of the mombrSIIC

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colon' ies lhat have developed on lhe surface of lhe membrane; one can lhen obtain direct presumptive coliform counts and direct Escherichia !;Q[1 count (Egbedeyi and Akinfemiwa, 1980). Characteristic acid or aldehyde producing colonies develop on lhe membrane and lhese are counted as eilher presumptive coliform organisms or faecal coliform depending on

lhe temperature of incubation (WHO, 1984).

Procedure:

The Membrane Filtration Melhod (MFM) apparatus consists or a sinlered diso supported In S�ne rubber gaskets fitted in a base to wtilch a graduated runnel can be attached. The sintered or perforated disc supports lhe membrane filter. During use, lhe filler-holding as sembly is mounted on a flask with a s ldearm connected to a vacuum system A series of fillers may be mounted In a manirold, thus permlltlng several samples to be filtered at the sa me time. After filtration of lhe requir ed wa1er sample (100ml in !his study), the membrane i s rernoveo and placed upwards in ⁸ suitable cultu re medium (Brilliant Green Bile Agar in this ca

se) or on a pad soaked in ⁸ liquld medium In a Petri dish, f0< Incubation, Incubation is

done at an ap . (3" -i,oe ror this case) for 24hou rs. After Incubation, the propnate temperature ^;r.,

membranes . ood light tor the appearance of colonles Only those were examined tn a g

Ccllonies . '

^J.Al^ft

or ln part) were C01Jnted exti1blbng a golden green sheen (in 1•111""'

Method of community aurv•:i

Fllf lhe d ^ta on the springs and lho ossoclated

COiiection and conalloO of qualltab ve a

dgo, otbtudc and

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

practice (KAP) of users of the ^s e springs, a community ^s urvey was carried out ln ^s trumenls utilized lo carry out this survey included an ob ^s ervation checklisl and a focu ^s group discussion guide and in-depth Interview guide.

3·4· 1 Observation

An observational checklist was designed and used to collecl dala on the spring water source s . The information sought from this activity centered on the following:

• The location of the spring ^s in the study area

• The prevailing environmental and ^s anllary condition ^s around these ^s pring ^s

• The types of human and cullural activitie ^s around the vicinity of the ^s prings, and their effects (if any)

• The rate of use of the springs as water source

• Estimating the possible yield achievable from the spring water sources

• The methods of collection of water from these spring ^s

• Water use pattern I.e. those who felch the water, for what purpose 1t Is pul and lhe use to Ytilich it ts pul, etc.

• The nature of the springs In terms of being proiecled.

3.4,2 �- 1 from the sprlng wator sources

Qtlrnatlng the posslblo yield achle vob 0

� es ^,i. ^.. �e 5pr1119s was detenni ned. The method brnate of the possible yield donvable from u"""'

cd in carryill9 oo t theSO osbmaoons The

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99 method involved using a pre-measured container and a stopwatch. A major criterion used in lhis yield determination was the fact that the pools fonned by these springs from where water is collected fills up at different times. The time taken to fill up the pools was taken into consideration in computing the possible yield from the springs. Another criterion taken into account was that springs where the collection of water involved the use of a fiXed container as in a sanitary well were not included in the detennination. This was attributed lo the long

� me it would take to pull out the container from the water bod y as opposed to direct SCOoping in the springs, which form pools. Thus, only springs which fonn pools and the Ume lo fill up can be measured were studied ror their yield, This estimation was carried out with the following assumption and the calculation in mind:

Assumption:

O f

the thirteen. (13} springs ser ving as sources ol drinking water in the study area, five (5)

� ^orn Which a pool of water Is formed and the method of coll ection ls by direct scooping, i.e.

SP4 SPB S tud'ed to determine the possible yield achievable ' , P9, SP11, and SP12 were s ¹

� ^orn them. The volume of a con tainer ,vas predetermi ned and used as a measure of the amount 01 water (lilresfsecond) that can be colleG ted trom !he source

W . . varying amounts ol different mineral salts. Those ater IS a universal solvent and dissolves

t.ary quality ol water, but are Important in the llrOducing hardness do not affect the sant

nd boiler purposes H erdness ts defined as a

dan-.esbc use of water par1lcu1a�Y fOf 1aun<l r/ 8

total concentrabon ol calcrum (Ca 1 ·) ond 1110

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

magnesium (Mg 2·) ions expressed as calcium carbonate (CaCOJ) (APHA, 1984). Ca 2 · and Mg 2• salts, the principal mineral constituents consume soap and precipitate as insoluble

compounds or soap curds. Until all the Ca2• and Mg2• are precipitated, no latter or washing action 1s obtained from the soap. The soap consuming power of water ls therefore a

measure of its hardness. Calcium and magnesium generally are dissolved as soluble bica r bonate (HC03·), but may change owing to heating, to the less soluble carbonate (C03 2 ·

l Which precipitates and is one of the sources of scales in distributing systems and hot water heaters. Hard water Is generally less corrosive than soft waters (Egbedeyi and Akmfemiwa, 1980).

1s referred to as "non-carbons e

�l i nity (both carbonate and bicarbonate) Is equal to the hardness (APHA, 1984).

ihe Eth . (EOTA) btrallon methOd was employed 10 esbmating the ylene-Olamlne-Tetra-AcetiC

hardness levels of the spring water sources

Prine/pie:

The . EOTA (CioH1 tO!Ni) 011ts sodium salts to form b\tali)n method depends on the abihlY

,,,.L nesium (Mg l •) tons On lho add1oon

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

of lhe dye, Eriochrome Black - T (Sodium sail of 1-(1-hydroxyl -2. naphlhanylazo) . 5.

Procedure:

Calculation:

Hardness as

A'N· 5000Q

Volume of sample

Where· . �

A" volume of the titranl EDTA used for the water samp II :: mg Cacol equivalent to 1ml EDTA btranl

• "MuttipllcatJon

•

'

j I

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

95

3.5.3

��;::t�r�: t

n�� amples for bacterlologlcal analysis and measurement for The major thrust he · , · · re is on stenhty" as much as possible. The container to be used for

s prev10us y stenhsed). The container is not opened until the point of sample collection 1 · 1 ..

· e container with the aid of a rope tied round its neck is lowered Into the sample collection Th .

water body to fill. The container is closed immediately and taken to the laboratory for analysis.

Measurement of collfonn organisms (Co/ifonn count)

ilFl'IT)aJs To· f ex'"',nental .,,Jlu tion, as well as ol the officacy ol

is serves as Indicators o "'" .,....

Wa:er treabnent and disln fect,ons The presence of such orgonlsms Indica tes the presence Of faecaJ malerials, and fndcates that intesb no1 pathogens could also be present

•

j I

j

i l

'

I

l

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

96

Conversely, the absence of faecal commensal organisms indicates lhat pathogens are probably absent (WHO, 1984).

Two basic methods are used for the detection and enumeration of coliform organisms in water -the Multiple Tube Method (MTM) and the Membrane Filtration Method (MFM). The

� methods do not give slrictly comparable results, one reason being that counts on memb ra ne filters do not give indication of gas production from lactose. but for practical

purposes, they do yield comparable information (APHA, 1998).

Prine/pie:

� is on f . i·iorm organisms In water. It lnvolves filtering a e o the methods of esttmabng co 1

�asur"" lh ough 8 membrane filter composed of cellulose

"" volume of the water sample �

tiler, Th . 1 diameter All types of bacteria present in the 8Y are usually of pore size O 45um n

Iii!�, By incubab09 tho membran e filler f9C8

are re1ained on the surface of the mombrSIIC

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

lhe temperature of incubation (WHO, 1984).

Procedure:

se) or on a pad soaked in 8 liquld medium In a Petri dish, f0< Incubation, Incubation is

done at an ap . (3" -i,oe ror this case) for 24hou rs. After Incubation, the propnate temperature ;r.,

membranes . ood light tor the appearance of colonles Only those were examined tn a g

Ccllonies . '

or ln part) were C01Jnted exti1blbng a golden green sheen (in 1•111""'

Method of community aurv•:i

Fllf lhe d ta on the springs and lho ossoclated

COiiection and conalloO of qualltab ve a

dgo, otbtudc and

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY

practice (KAP) of users of the s e springs, a community s urvey was carried out ln s trumenls utilized lo carry out this survey included an ob s ervation checklisl and a focu s group discussion guide and in-depth Interview guide.

3·4· 1 Observation

An observational checklist was designed and used to collecl dala on the spring water source s . The information sought from this activity centered on the following:

• The location of the spring s in the study area

dan-.esbc use of water par1lcu1a�Y fOf 1aun<l r/ ⁸

total concentrabon ol calcrum (Ca ¹ ^·) ond 1110

magnesium (Mg ^2·) ions expressed as calcium carbonate (CaCOJ) (APHA, 1984). Ca ² · and Mg ^2• salts, the principal mineral constituents consume soap and precipitate as insoluble

measure of its hardness. Calcium and magnesium generally are dissolved as soluble bica r bonate (HC03·), but may change owing to heating, to the less soluble carbonate (C03 ² ·

�l ⁱ nity (both carbonate and bicarbonate) Is equal to the hardness (APHA, 1984).

ihe Eth . (EOTA) btrallon methOd was ^employed ¹⁰ esbmating the ylene-Olamlne-Tetra-AcetiC

The . EOTA (CioH1 tO!Ni) ^011ts sodium salts to form b\tali)n method depends on the abihlY

,,,.L ^{nesium (Mg} ^l •) tons On lho add1oon

Where· . _�

�asur"" lh ough ⁸ membrane filter composed of cellulose

se) or on a pad soaked in ⁸ liquld medium In a Petri dish, f0< Incubation, Incubation is

done at an ap . (3" -i,oe ror this case) for 24hou rs. After Incubation, the propnate temperature ^;r.,

Fllf lhe d ^ta on the springs and lho ossoclated

practice (KAP) of users of the ^s e springs, a community ^s urvey was carried out ln ^s trumenls utilized lo carry out this survey included an ob ^s ervation checklisl and a focu ^s group discussion guide and in-depth Interview guide.

• The location of the spring ^s in the study area

• The prevailing environmental and ^s anllary condition ^s around these ^s pring ^s

• The types of human and cullural activitie ^s around the vicinity of the ^s prings, and their effects (if any)

• The methods of collection of water from these spring ^s

� es ^,i. ^.. �e 5pr1119s was detenni ned. The method brnate of the possible yield donvable from u"""'

� ^orn Which a pool of water Is formed and the method of coll ection ls by direct scooping, i.e.

SP4 SPB S tud'ed to determine the possible yield achievable ' , P9, SP11, and SP12 were s ¹

� ^orn them. The volume of a con tainer ,vas predetermi ned and used as a measure of the amount 01 water (lilresfsecond) that can be colleG ted trom !he source