Several measures used in phase

5.2.4. Extracted paranormal belief factors (MMUpbs new measure of paranormal belief)

These initially were comprised of a 50-item scale based on the 8 paranormal factors extracted from phase I. Both phases have extended the research of the Dagnall et al. (2010a, 2010b) (see description in background for more detail). They consist of a total of 48-items within the following facets; Ghosts (8-items), ET (8-items), superstition (5- Items), PK (6-Items), religion (7-items), astrology (5-items), witchcraft (5-items) and precognition (4-items) (see Table 2 below). Each subscale originally contains a mixture of positively phrased and negatively phrased (reversed) items. Following factor analysis, only

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positive items remained for three of the factors: witchcraft, ET and astrology. Those items remaining are positive statements (e.g., “There is a devil” and “poltergeists exist”), and are measured on a seven point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The original subscales were conceptually coherent: possessed good face validity; composed of individual items that clearly related to the assigned factor label. In addition to this, factors possessed good to excellent external reliability.

Additional consideration of previously extracted factors revealed an imbalanced number of items across subscales. To address this issue, a further literature review was undertaken and supplementary items generated (see Appendix C. pp. 383-387 for complete lists of generated items C.1. and the first iteration of 64-items C.2.). The addition of further questions increased subscale breadth and balanced subscale item numbers (e.g., the 47- item total increased to 64-items. This subsequently reduced to 48-items). Previous academic research established the adequacy of subscale breadth (e.g., alien visitation, 8- items) (Dagnall et al., 2010b; Dagnall et al., 2011).

5.2.5. Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) (Tobacyk and Milford, 1983; Tobacyk, 1988; Lange et al., 2000)

This is a modified version of Tobacyk and Milford’s (1983) paranormal belief scale, scored using the rasch scale procedure (Lange and Thalbourne, 2002). (For further details of the convention required for this measure, see phase I p.103.).

5.2.6. Australian Sheep-Goat Scale (ASGS) (Thalbourne and Delin, 1993; Thalbourne, 2001)

The ASGS (an 18-item scale) that measures belief in, and alleged experience of, the paranormal, by focusing on the subset of core paranormal beliefs: Extra-sensory perception, psychokinesis, and life after death (Wiseman and Watt, 2006). Scoring of the ASGS requires using the rasch scale procedure (Lange and Thalbourne, 2002). (For further details of the convention required for this measure, see phase I p.103).

5.2.7. Global items (beliefs)

Three single/global items were introduced to the new version of the questionnaire in order to assess further the veracity of a multidimensional scale vs. a single item measure (paranormal statements that ask respondents to endorse or refute belief in the paranormal;

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measured on a 7-point Likert scale where 1 is strongly disagree and 7 strongly agree). Recent/current literature enabled the generation of global items. They were developed and based on several important definitions: 1) Broad’s (1949/1978) definition of paranormality, which delineates paranormal phenomena as those that, if genuine, would violate the basic limiting principles of science. 2) Irwin’s (1993) definition proposes that paranormal beliefs are a hypothesized process, which in principle are physically impossible or outside the realm of human capabilities, presently conceived by conventional scientists, and 3), that while people who have had an experience that they cannot explain, or are deemed outside the realm of what is known/science (Thalbourne, 1982). (see Appendix A. Section 3, Global Questions of Paranormal belief for further details of 3 Global items, pp 309-310).

5.2.8. Procedure

The respondents were required to complete a new questionnaire as part of the ongoing measure development for this study. This comprised the following measures: MMUpbs, RPBS, ASGS and paranormal global items. Instructions within the test booklets asked consenting respondents to complete all questions. The researcher collected the completed questionnaires and debriefed the participants. All aspects of the study adhered to the ethical guidelines specified by Manchester Metropolitan University ethics board. The procedure and ethics followed the same one outlined in phase I of this research (see subsection 4.3.8. procedure, p. 105 and 4.3.9. Ethics, p. 105-106 for further details).

5.3. Results

5.3.1. Scale Reliability

The paranormal belief measures: Australian sheep-goat scale, ASGS (α = .89), revised paranormal belief scale, RPBS (α = .94), and MMUpbs (α = .93) demonstrated good/excellent internal reliability (George and Malley, 2003). Similarly, the RPBS subscales: TPB (α = .83) and NAP (α = .89) possessed good internal reliability.

Table 1 contains the scale descriptive statistics, rasch scaled scores for ASGS and the RPBS subscales (NAP and TPB); MMUpbs, RPBS overall mean totals.

134 Table 1. Scale descriptive statistics (phase II)

(Key: MMUpbs = Manchester Metropolitan University Paranormal Belief Scale, GHOSTStot = Ghosts, ETtot = Extra-Terrestrials, SUPERtot = Superstition, PKtot = Psychokinesis, RELtot = Religious Beliefs, ASTROtot = Astrology, WITCHtot = Witchcraft, PRECOGtot = Precognition, NAPrasch = New Age Philosophy, TPBrasch = Traditional Paranormal Belief, RPBStot = Revised Paranormal Belief Scale and, the ASGSrasch = Australian Sheep-Goat Scale).

Each of the factors was coherent, possessed conceptual clarity and possessed good/excellent internal reliability. The MMUpbs demonstrated excellent internal consistency (.93). Considering all the subscales of the MMUpbs, ghosts (.93), ET (.93), superstition (.84), psychokinesis (.86), religion (.90), astrology (.80), witchcraft (.86) possessed good to excellent internal consistency, while precognition (.75) possessed good internal consistency. The RPBS demonstrated excellent consistency (.94), while the subscales, NAPrasch (.89) and TPBrasch (.83) demonstrated good internal consistency. The ASGSrasch (.89) also demonstrated good internal reliability.

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Table 2. Breakdown of factors: Positively and negatively (reversed) worded items

(Total numbers of items per factor shown above)

The total items for each factor appear in table 2 above. These items are not generally cross- loaded nor do they share significant amounts of variance. Initial items totalled 64 and included both positively and negatively (reversed) worded items for all facets. (NB: items with the letters REV after the item number signify reversal of that item)

5.3.2. Inter-measure correlations

Pearson product moment correlations examined relationships between measures (see Table 3).

Table 3. Inter-measure correlations

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(Key: ASGSrasch = Australian Sheep-Goat Scale rasch scaled, RPBStot = Revised Paranormal Belief Scale Total, NAPrasch = New Age Philosophy rasch scaled, TPBrasch = Traditional Paranormal Belief rasch scaled, Global 1 = Global measure of paranormality 1, Global 2 = Global measure paranormality 2, Global 3 = Global measure paranormality 3, and the MMUpbs = Manchester Metropolitan University Paranormal Belief Measure).

Consideration of paranormal belief measures revealed a series of significant positive correlations between ASGS; RPBS; MMUpbs; RPBS subscales, TPBrasch and NAPrasch. Correlations between paranormal measures (MMUpbs, RPBStot and NAPrasch) were in the high range (above .5), whilst, (TPBrasch) were found to be between the low to mid- range (.18 to .47) (Cohen, 1988, 1992). In addition, significant positive correlations exist between global item 2 and all of the other paranormal belief measures: ASGSrasch .56**, RPBStot .68**, NAPrasch .65**, TPBrasch .31** and MMUpbs .73**.

Pearson’s product moment correlation revealed significant inter-factor correlations (see Table 4). The majority of correlations were in the moderate to strong category (.30 to .72). Correlations between superstition and ET (r = .24), and religious belief and ET(r = .26) were in the weak range .20 to .29. Negligible correlations were observed between witchcraft and superstition (r = .17) and religious belief and superstition (r = .18).

137 Table 4. Inter-factor correlations

**correlation significant at p < .01 (one-tailed).

(Key: Ghosts = Belief in Ghosts, Extra-Terrestrial = Extra-Terrestrial belief, Superstition = Superstitious Belief, Psychokinesis = Psychokinesis, Religion = Religious Belief, Astrology = Belief in Astrology, Witchcraft = Belief in Witchcraft, Precognition = Belief in Precognition, NAPrasch = New Age Philosophy rasch scaled, TPBrasch = Traditional Paranormal Belief rasch scaled and ASGSrasch = Australian Sheep-Goat Scale rasch scaled).

Correlations between paranormal subscales (ghosts, psychokinesis, religion, astrology, witchcraft and precognition) were in the high range (above .5), whilst, (TPBrasch) was found to be between the mid-range (.18 to .47). Correlations for NAPrasch were all well within the high range (above .5). Negligible correlations were observed between TPBrasch and superstition (r = .19), and between ASGSrasch and TPBrasch (r = .18) (Cohen, 1988, 1992).

5.3.3. Scale relationships

All measures were internally reliable: MMUpbs, RPBS, and ASGS. Relationships between the full scale MMUpbs, RPBS, ASGS and the MMUpbs subscales revealed significant positive correlations. Global item 2 correlates significantly at the .01% level with all of the full measures and all subscale scores of MMUpbs. In line with Cohen (1988), correlations

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are defined as small (r = .10), moderate/medium (r = .30) and large (r = .50) respectively (p. 185). Consequently, Global measure 2 produced correlations that are considered high, (MMUpbs r = .73**, ghosts r = .75**, religion r = .55**, witchcraft r = .56**, precognition r = .52**, psychokinesis r = .51**, RPBS r = .68**, NAPrasch r = .65 and ASGS r = .60**); medium, (extra-terrestrial r = .47**, astrology r = .45**, TPBrasch r = .31**) and; small, (superstition r = .25**).

Table 5. Correlation of global, full and subscale measures

*correlation significant at p < .05 (one tailed); **correlation significant at p < .01 (one- tailed).

Most significant is ghosts (.75**), while superstition (.25**) possesses the lowest correlation at the .01% level. Global item 1 only correlates negatively with astrology (- .17**), while Global item 3 correlates with ET (.10*), astrology (-.10*) and witchcraft (.10*) (see Appendix A. Section 3, for further details of 3 Global items, pp 309-310).