Lynn Shaw, Rosemary Lysaght
MEASURING THE COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL DEMANDS OF WORK
Numerous challenges are involved in assessing workload, because many cognitive and beha-vioral demands are less observable than physical demands. By focusing on the behavioral aspects of cognitive skills, however, it is possible to iden-tify and rate demand levels. For example, record-ing the degree to which one is exposed to emotional situations on a job is arguably more objectively determined than is measuring the level of sensitiv-ity required. Another challenge lies in the fact that cognitive and behavioral ratings are often done by or with workers themselves so that a broad and inclusive spectrum of the job demands is consid-ered. Individual worker perceptions of the inher-ent cognitive demand of a job may vary greatly, however, based on their personal qualities, such as the worker’s ability to function in the pre-sence of multiple stimuli or with high or low supervision.
Document Review
Job descriptions provided by a company or work unit can provide useful background information on the position in question, including responsibili-ties, physical risks, hours of work, and specifi c knowledge or preparation required. The latter can provide insight into the nature of the work. For example, if a worker is required to have many years of experience in the use of technical
equip-ment, one may anticipate that a high level of attention to detail and accountability are required.
A worker who is required to pass numerous police screenings will likely have some level of self-supervision, as well as personal accountability.
Other sources outside of the workplace, such as government job descriptions and ratings, like the National O*Net Consortium: Occupational Infor-mation Network (O*Net) (http://online.onetcen-ter.org), also provide good background information, but it may not be directly relevant to the demands of work in a particular workplace. For example, the cognitive and behavioral demands of a clean-ing job may be quite different for a worker who works on a crew with other workers than for one who is independently responsible for an entire building, although the physical demands may be quite similar.
Observation
An impartial rater, such as a therapist or occupa-tional health nurse, may observe job performance and note the variety of demands required in the cognitive and behavioral spectrum. Use of a struc-tured format or checklist helps observers attend to key factors and to consistently record demand levels. In order for analyses to be complete, it may be necessary to observe for extended time periods or to sample time segments from different times of the day or week. Observational analysis is gen-erally done in conjunction with other information sources (e.g., review of job descriptions, inter-views) in order to guide time sampling to ensure that the review is comprehensive.
Worker Interviews
Job incumbents possess the most in-depth knowl-edge of a job and are an invaluable source of information concerning job demands. Although some workers will lack the experience to critically evaluate the level of job demand, many contem-porary workers have been employed in a number of different positions over the course of their working life and will have keen insight into the key risks or demands associated with the cur-rent job. Use of behaviorally based scales and examples is helpful in identifying the level of demand.
Ch007-A04853.indd 111
Ch007-A04853.indd 111 6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM
Supervisor Interviews
Supervisor input is useful for understanding job duties and how they fi t with the overall fl ow of the workplace. Expectations of worker perfor-mance in such functions as customer service, emergency preparedness, and cooperation with other workers may be best identifi ed by a person with a broad, supervisory perspective. Supervisor interviews alone typically provide insuffi cient information on which to base job demands an -alysis (JDA), however, as often the supervi-sor is removed from a job and its detailed requirements.
As with any measurement system, cognitive and behavioral job rating tools must satisfy basic standards for reliability and validity. Validity issues in rating forms are typically addressed in the developmental stages by including vocational and occupational health experts in the creation and refi nement of tools such that the items included are meaningful, relevant, and compre-hensive. The reliability of a measure, which is the reproducibility of the score over time or across raters, is enhanced by the following:
• Clear defi nitions: The levels of an item and their meaning must be clearly stated and defi ned for the rater. Ambiguous defi nitions lead to wide variance in scoring, based on differences in interpretation from one job setting to another and from one rater to another.
• Training: Job raters require both thorough orientation to rating tools and experience in using the tool under supervision in order to eliminate misconceptions. This is particu-larly important in the case of tools measur-ing the cognitive and behavioral aspects of work, because of the less observable nature of many of the items. Training is generally enhanced by providing detailed documenta-tion as to how to use the tool, along with sample cases.
• Experience: As in other areas of JDA, famil-iarity with a measurement tool and exposure to a wide variety of job types help to situate observations in a broader context. Observers are more able over time to differentiate among levels of cognitive and behavioral
demand than when few reference points are available.
Rating Systems
A number of approaches to identifying the cogni-tive and behavioral demands of work are available in the literature and from corporate and govern-ment sources. Functional demands are examined in different ways depending on the group con-ducting the analysis and the group’s purpose.
Government agencies (such as the U.S. Depart-ment of Labor, EmployDepart-ment and Training Admin-istration [DLET] and Statistics Canada) maintain databases of jobs and their corresponding training and skill requirements. These systems include ratings related to the knowledge level required and other cognitive components of work. For example, O*Net, the job database maintained by DLET, includes ratings on more than 40 cognitive and behavioral skills for each job (Table 7-2).
These skills range from the basic skills required to perform a job to required aptitudes in areas such as complex problem solving, resource man-agement, and social, technical, and systems skills.
Skill ratings are done by incumbent workers who are assumed to have in-depth knowledge of jobs, and the resulting scales are used primarily for vocational guidance and planning and for public policy development.
Unions typically perform job demands analyses for the purpose of delineating the responsibility level of work in order to determine the relative value of the job, with the goal of creating fair and equitable compensation scales. The Uniform Clas-sifi cation Standard developed by the Treasury Board of Canada for classifi cation of public sector jobs has been used or adapted by major unions in that country. It rates four key elements of jobs:
Responsibility, Effort, Skills, and Working Condi-tions. Table 7-3 demonstrates how the Univer-sal Classifi cation has been modifi ed for use by one major union, the Canadian Union of Public Employees (CUPE). Many of these demands address the cognitive and behavioral aspects of performing work. A sample rating scale is shown in Figure 7-2. In order to allocate point values to jobs using the various scales, determinations are typically done by job evaluation committees that
Ch007-A04853.indd 112
Ch007-A04853.indd 112 6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM
TABLE 7-2 O*NET Skill Requirements Categories
Skills Developed Capacities
Basic Skills Capacities That Facilitate Learning or the More Rapid Acquisition of Knowledge Active learning Understanding the implications of new information for both current and future
problem solving and decision making
Active listening Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times
Critical thinking Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions, or approaches to problems
Learning strategies Selecting and using training or instructional methods and procedures appropriate for the situation when learning or teaching new things
Mathematics Using mathematics to solve problems
Monitoring Monitoring and assessing performance of one’s self, other individuals, or organizations to make improvements or take corrective action
Reading Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work-related documents comprehension
Science Using scientifi c rules and methods to solve problems Speaking Talking to others to convey information effectively
Writing Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience
Complex Problem- Capacities Used to Solve Novel, Ill-Defi ned Problems in Complex, Real-World Solving Skills Settings
Complex problem Identifying complex problems and reviewing related information to develop and solving evaluate options and implement solutions
Resource Management Capacities Used to Allocate Resources Effi ciently Skills
Management of Determining how money will be spent to get the work done and accounting for fi nancial resources these expenditures
Management of Obtaining and seeing to the appropriate use of equipment, facilities, and material resources materials needed to do certain work
Management of Motivating, developing, and directing people as they work, identifying the personnel resources best people for the job
Time management Managing one’s own time and the time of others
Social Skills Capacities Used to Work with People to Achieve Goals Coordination Adjusting actions in relation to others’ actions Instructing Teaching others how to do something
Negotiation Bringing others together and trying to reconcile differences
Continued
Ch007-A04853.indd 113
Ch007-A04853.indd 113 6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM
Persuasion Persuading others to change their minds or behavior Service orientation Actively looking for ways to help people
Social perceptiveness Being aware of others’ reactions and understanding why they react as they do Systems Skills Capacities Used to Understand, Monitor, and Improve Sociotechnical Systems Judgment and Considering the relative costs and benefi ts of potential actions to choose the decision making most appropriate one
Systems analysis Determining how a system should work and how changes in conditions, operations, and the environment will affect outcomes
Systems evaluation Identifying measures or indicators of system performance and the actions needed to improve or correct performance, relative to the goals of the system
Technical Skills Capacities Used to Design, Set up, Operate, and Correct Malfunctions Involving Application of Machines or Technologic Systems
Equipment Performing routine maintenance on equipment and determining when and what maintenance kind of maintenance is needed
Equipment selection Determining the kind of tools and equipment needed to do a job
Installation Installing equipment, machines, wiring, or programs to meet specifi cations Operation and Controlling operations of equipment or systems
control
Operation monitoring Watching gauges, dials, or other indicators to make sure a machine is working properly
Operations analysis Analyzing needs and product requirements to create a design Programming Writing computer programs for various purposes
Quality control Conducting tests and inspections of products, services, or processes to evaluate analysis quality or performance
Repairing Repairing machines or systems using the needed tools
Technology design Generating or adapting equipment and technology to serve user needs Troubleshooting Determining causes of operating errors and deciding what to do about them TABLE 7-2 O*NET Skill Requirements Categories—cont’d
Skills Developed Capacities
TABLE 7-3 Work Characteristics Included in the Canadian Union of Public Employees Gender-Neutral Job Evaluation Plan
Characteristic Examples Characteristic Examples
Responsibility Accountability Skill Knowledge
Safety of others Experience
Supervision of others Judgment
Contacts with others Working conditions Disagreeable working conditions Effort Concentration
Physical effort Dexterity
Ch007-A04853.indd 114
Ch007-A04853.indd 114 6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM
Subfactor 4 - Concentration
DEFINITION: This subfactor measures the period of time wherein mental, visual, and/or aural concentration is required on the job. Both the frequency and duration of the effort are to be considered.
DEGREES: 1. Occasional periods of short duration.
2. Frequent periods of short duration; OR Occasional periods of intermediate duration.
3. Almost continuous periods of short duration; OR Frequent periods of intermediate duration; OR Occasional periods of long duration.
4. Almost continuous periods of intermediate duration; OR Frequent periods of long duration.
5. Almost continuous periods of long duration.
NOTES TO 1. Attentiveness is required for all jobs; rate tasks requiring concentration.
RATERS:
2. Concentration includes activities such as listening, interpreting, reading, watching, driving, inputting data, or when a combination of the five senses, sight, taste, smell, touch, and hearing, is required in the course of doing the job that result in mental/sensory fatigue.
3. Consider components such as interruptions and the requirements for simultaneous processing of information (i.e., maintaining concentration despite frequent interruptions or changes in work priorities).
4. Duration of uninterrupted time is measured as follows:
Short — Up to and including 1 hour.
Intermediate — Over 1 hour, and up to and including 2 hours.
Long — In excess of 2 hours.
Frequency relates to work carried out on a regular basis throughout the year.
Occasional — Once in a while, most days.
Frequent — Several times a day or at least 4 days per week.
Almost Continuous — Most working hours for at least an average of 4 days per week.
5. Subfactor Chart
FREQUENCY DURATION
Short Intermediate Long
Occasional 1 2 3
Frequent 2 3 4
Almost Continuous 3 4 5
FIGURE 7-2 Sample rating format from the Universal Classifi cation Standard.
Ch007-A04853.indd 115
Ch007-A04853.indd 115 6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM6/11/2007 11:14:45 AM
base job ratings on job questionnaires completed by workers and supervisors.
Measures emerging from psychology, as previ-ously mentioned, are used primarily in research in order to measure the relationship between job demands and various outcomes of interest. An example of a scale used for this purpose is the Job Content Questionnaire,3 a standardized, self-administered tool that measures a number of cognitive, behavioral, and contextual job factors including decision authority, choice and variety in work, psychologic demands and mental workload (including general psychologic demands, role ambiguity, concentration, and mental work dis-ruption), job security, and supports available. The subject is asked to indicate on a scale ranging from “Never” to “Extremely Often” the extent to which the job requires him or her to work fast, how often the worker must expend excessive effort, whether the job is hectic, and other similar factors. This tool has well-established predictive validity and reliability but is available only from the authors for use in research.
From a rehabilitation perspective, the cognitive and behavioral demands of jobs are of increasing interest to therapists and occupational health per-sonnel, given their relevance to successful job performance. The goal of JDA in rehabilitation is to understand and objectify the requirements of the work for use in work conditioning and modi-fi ed return-to-work programs. Many JDA tools in use provide only global ratings of cognitive and behavioral demands and lack suffi cient detail to match jobs to the functional capacities of the worker. In addition, only a few JDA tools identify the demands of work versus the capabilities of the worker.