Despite their importance in education, superintendents of public schools have largely escaped the attention of scholars, and the experiences of female superintendents, with a few exceptions, have been ignored. Scholars have examined pedagogy, literacy, and the spread of public education, but have directed scant attention to the CEOs of schools themselves. Over the last 50 years, we have witnessed an increase in
publications surrounding females in educational administration only to see a dramatic decline over the last decade. This is in part due to the field of educational administration being preoccupied with a focus on school leadership for school improvement and
leadership in social justice, with gender being dropped from the analysis. For example, in the last few years, influential scholarship has been advanced in school improvement by (Harris, 2012; Reeves, 2006); in social justice by (Lipman, 2011; Marshall, 2004), while articles regarding school administration and gender have seen a noticeable void.
Given the type of research posited, qualitative research is the most appropriate method to allow women to tell their stories. In qualitative research, the primary instrument of data collection and analysis is the researcher, particularly when using interviews to collect data. I seek to give voice to female superintendents in Utah through interviewing and reporting their stories. Understanding individuals’ interpretations and
perceptions are critical to qualitative investigations (Stainback & Stainback, 1988), and learning from the participants is a key concept (Cresswell, 2009). In qualitative research, the focus is on the meaning that the participant places on the experience or issue under study. Lincoln and Guba (1985) note, “If you want people to understand better than they otherwise might, provide them information in the form in which they usually experience it” (p. 5). According to Merriam (1988):
Qualitative research assumes that there are multiple realities–that the world is not an objective thing out there but a function of personal interaction and perception. It is a highly subjective phenomenon in need of interpreting rather than
measuring. Beliefs rather than facts form the basis of perception. Research is exploratory, inductive, and emphasizes process rather than ends. In this paradigm, there are no predetermined hypotheses, no treatments, and no restrictions on the end product. One does not manipulate the variables or
administer a treatment. What one does is observe, intuit, sense what is occurring in a natural setting–hence the term naturalistic inquiry. (p. 17)
Qualitative methods illustrate the uniqueness, dilemmas, and complexities of a person in such a way that it causes readers to reflect upon themselves and to bring their own situations and questions to the story (Glesne, 2011).
In the following section, I will discuss a) my methodological approach and perspectives on conducting research that influence and reflect my view of my participants and the role of the researcher, b) my research design, c) my proposal for population and sample selection, d) data collection and management tools, and e) my data analysis.
Interviews and Issues of Anonymity
At the beginning of this study, I anticipated that I would collect life histories of current and previous female superintendents in the state of Utah. According to Glesne (2006), “a good life history illustrates the uniqueness, dilemmas, and complexities of a
person’s life in such a way that it causes readers to reflect upon themselves and bring their own situations and questions to the story” (p. 11). To be more precise, “life histories emphasize the experience of the individual” (Marshall & Rossman, 2011, p. 151). Life histories attempt to understand the context in which participants in a study address a problem or issue. Additionally, life histories, like other genres of qualitative research, are motivated by the wish to understand other people’s perspectives. It is a collaborative experience between the researcher and participant (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Pinnegar & Daynes, 2007; Riessman, 2008). Thus, the researcher’s narratives interact with the participant’s narratives, generating authentic meaningful engagement.
The purpose in my setting out to do life histories was to reestablish gender as an important consideration in educational leadership. As previously stated, this was to be done by capturing the experiences of Utah women who are in the role of or who have previously served as superintendent. Through centering female superintendents’ experiences, I aimed to gain an understanding of how they negotiate day-to-day interactions and discourses. However, while conducting the study, I was unable to produce my data in a life history method because of the risk of losing anonymity. I originally expected that narrative methods would help me to provide special insights into the complexities of female superintendents’ lived experiences and their interpretations of them beyond more familiar research methods. However, at the risk of losing anonymity, I was unable to utilize the life history methodology to present my findings. Thus, I have addressed this by problematic by removing any identifiers from the participants and I have developed composite data narratives. In other words, I will be taking my findings and constructing a story of a female serving in the superintendency, which will be
composite narratives that illustrate key points discussed throughout the study.
Since there are only three current female superintendents, and 16 retired living female superintendents in Utah, it is extremely important that their stories be told. Their stories can give readers an informed awareness about experiences encountered while working to secure their position, current experiences they are encountering in their careers, and strategies that have helped them to overcome any barriers or obstacles as superintendents of schools in Utah. The recommendations and advice given by the women superintendents in Utah to other women in Utah pursuing the superintendency, as well as suggestions for structural changes were also documented.
One of the most interesting yet demanding aspects of the interview process is the relationship between the researcher and the participant. “In qualitative research, the nature of the relationship depends on at least two factors: the quality of your interactions to support your research – or rapport – and the quality of your self-awareness of the potential effects of the self on your research – or subjectivity” (Glesne, 1999, p. 152). Thus, the researcher/participant relationship is key to the success of qualitative research. I use Marshall and Rossman (1999) to help me think through and address the relationship between me, a White, married graduate-student researcher who works in the public education system, and the participants, superintendents in or retired from the public education system from diverse backgrounds. Marshall and Rossman (1999) address the concerns of the researcher’s role that include a) entry, reciprocity, and ethics; b) specific planned data collection techniques; c) how the data will be recorded and managed; d) preliminary strategies for data analysis; e) design features for ensuring trustworthiness of the study, and; f) a management plan with a timeline for the conduct and final reporting
of the study (p. 65).
As researchers, we each bring our own experiences and history into the research process. Feminist literature encourages subjectivism, allowing the researcher to draw from lived experiences to produce accounts of social life. Glesne (1999) notes that subjectivity is virtuous and something to capitalize on rather than to exorcise. Thus, this study is deeply informed by my role as an insider and a researcher. Based on my own history with education, I imagine that some of the narratives will resonate with my own experiences. This unique insight will enable me to strongly identify and empathize with the study participants. It will also allow me to create a common bond with the
participants. Nevertheless, it is also essential for me to be cognizant of this and continually reflect upon how I might be reinforcing hierarchies based on my own histories, beliefs, and/or my institutional authority both as a researcher and as an educator.
My reason for choosing this study was both personal and professional. What initially caught my attention was learning that Utah, a state with 41 districts at the time, there were only four White female superintendents, compared to 37 White males. Second, as I was becoming more established in my career, I was becoming increasingly interested in administrative roles, particularly the superintendency. As a female
interested in educational leadership, it is essential that I understand the experiences of females who have already confronted the “glass ceiling” in these roles.
Research Design
Population and subjects. The research study’s proposed population consists of a potential of 19 practicing or retired female superintendents in Utah. This number may be variable depending upon access to the participants, as well as the number of participants who choose to partake in the study. Current practicing female superintendents were identified through the Utah State Office of Education’s superintendent directory. In order to obtain the most accurate and up-to-date information on previous female
superintendents, I contacted each district in Utah and obtained a comprehensive list of superintendents. The majority of these lists presented names of superintendents from the date of the districts conception until current. The potential participants from each
directory were identified by their title (Ms., Mrs., or Miss) as well as by their first names. In cases where there was no title and the first name could not be identified with either men or women, I reviewed district websites for pictures or other gender-identifying materials. These sources revealed that, historically, there had been 25 female
superintendents in the state of Utah; at the time of the study, there were three women currently serving as district superintendents in the state; 22 women had formerly served as superintendent in the state, with six of them being deceased, and one serving both as a district superintendent and the state superintendent. This information is presented in Table 1.
Although several forms of sampling strategies were available, purposeful sampling was utilized for this research study. Neuman (2003) suggests that purposeful sampling is one of the techniques used in narrative inquiry as a way to gather participants for a research study. Purposeful sampling involves finding participants for a certain
purpose. Patton (2002) suggests that in purposeful sampling, the researcher determines the purpose of a study and then goes out and finds participants to serve that purpose. In addition, purposeful sampling provides an avenue for “information-rich cases for study in-depth” (Patton, 2002). Patton (2002) notes that “information-rich cases are those from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the inquiry” (p. 264). Generally, participants chosen for a study are part of a particular group, and the researcher chose participants for this study because of their affiliation with a particular group. The criteria used for the research sample selection included the following guidelines:
• Current or retired female superintendents • Served as a superintendent in Utah
• Participants’ willingness to participate in interviews
In an effort to secure contact with the participants and start to form a relationship, I personally contacted each participant by phone and introduced the study. Additionally, I obtained a verbal commitment from individuals regarding their willingness to
participate. After they decide to participate, each participant received a formal email explaining the purpose of the study (Appendix B). Research subjects were also asked to indicate their willingness to participate in the research study by signing a consent form (Appendix C). Throughout the study, the names of the research participants and their districts of employment were kept confidential. Although data collection in a
phenomenological study varies, social media responses and interviews were the primary sources of data.
experiences, internal and external barriers, career preparation, mentor and sponsor experiences, networking, and leadership behaviors (Appendix A).
Data Collection Methods and Management
Data for this study was generated from social media data collection as well as in- depth face-to-face interviews. In order to develop a research relationship and rapport with the participants, social media was used to introduce the study and face-to-face interviews were conducted to further gleam information about participant’s life experiences. In this section, I will lay out my data collection methods and the
management of the data. Specifically, I will discuss 1) social media data collection; 2) the use of in-depth interviewing; 3) artifacts; 4) and data analysis.
Social media. First, I used social media to encourage discussion among
participants. The growth of information and communication technologies in qualitative research has opened up new opportunities for researchers to examine how traditional research methods can be adopted for effective online research (Jones, 1999; Jones et al., 2004). I am particularly interested in the use of social media, such as email, blogging, etc., to generate narratives of female superintendent’s experience in their voice, and provide a central place to document their stories.
For this portion of the data collection, the website Edmodo.com was utilized. Edmodo is a private/collaborative website in which the researcher is able to create and deliver content to participants. In other words, Edmodo allows participants to respond to prompts in a location that is shared only by other participants. This form of social media data collection allowed a conversation to begin between the research subjects and myself.
This facilitated not only the sharing of information but also laid a foundation for relations that enabled the face-to-face interviews to be conducted with more depth. In other words, Edmodo.com was a platform for introductions and was continuously utilized throughout the study for discussion and follow up. Each individual chose to simply respond to prompts given or to collaborate with others in a group discussion. Additionally, when logged into Edmodo, individuals could choose to share thoughts, feelings, or additional postings that were not prompted by the researcher.
In order to access both the website and the content provided, each participant was provided with a password. Once logged in, participants saw my personal story along with uploaded pictures of my family and myself. The first activity on Edmodo was for participants to write a personal story of their own and upload it to the website. They then had access to three additional media forms. Participants chose to respond with written text or by uploading their own materials to the website. The three prompts illustrated different stories with respect to the intersection of leadership and gender. Each prompt was chosen to elicit the voices of the female superintendents and illuminate their individual experiences. All three prompts were uploaded ahead of time, allowing each individual to choose their own rate of response. However, it was encouraged that each participant respond to the prompts provided within a months period of time. Prompts consisted of a video clip from a documentary, a comic, and a poem. Each prompt was accompanied by a question, eliciting responses. The prompts were chosen at the start of data collection. This helped form a platform from which each participant could write their narratives. Moreover, the site remained open following the month period of time for the remainder of the study. Additional prompts, thoughts, and feelings were posted
throughout the study to allow for further discussion. Finally, Edmodo was used as a site for individual follow up on interviews. Follow-up questions were used to obtain a deeper and fuller understanding of participant’s meaning. As additional information was
gathered and more questions arose Edmodo was used to pose questions on an individual basis. In addition, if a participant offered new information, it was essential that this be confirmed by following up with other participants previously interviewed. Responding to the social media portion of the data collection, as well as the amount of time spent on each prompt, was optional for each participant.
Individuals opting to participate in the social media portion of the data collection, who were unable to access the online content for any reason, were mailed a hard copy of the prompts. This prevented them from participating in the group discussions; however, they were still able to share their thoughts and feelings regarding the prompts.
In-depth interviews. Next, I used in-depth interviewing to obtain a further understanding of the participants’ experiences and their interpretations of them. Prior to interviewing the 19 potential female superintendents, interviews were piloted with women in alternative educational leadership positions. Marshall and Rossman (1999) suggest that in-depth interviewing allows the participants to construct their own stories from which meaning and ultimately data may be gathered. It is further defined as a “conversation with a specific purpose–a conversation between researcher and informant focusing on the informant’s perspective of self, life and experience and expressed in his or her own words” (Minchiello, Aroni, Timewell, & Alexander, 1995).
Through interviewing, I hoped to glean further insight into the key factors influencing the participants’ trajectories. To capture rich data, potentially 19 practicing
or retired Utah female superintendents selected to participate in this study were
interviewed collaboratively as well as individually. Each of the interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed, allowing for analysis of significant statements into themes. Since the study consists of current and previous female superintendents in the state of Utah, the stories given reflect both current and past experiences within the position. Preceding the first interview, each participant was asked to bring an artifact that helped illustrate her story. During the first interview, the artifact served as a conversation piece. Rather than beginning with a list of questions, participants were encouraged to share what they believe was important by speaking through the artifact. However, a list of questions was also utilized to prompt the participants for additional information. These questions are included in Appendix A. Each interview was transcribed and coded prior to the second interview. By reviewing the transcripts prior to the second interview, follow-up questions were developed based on issues discussed in the initial interview.
The second interview consisted of one-on-one interviews as well as a collaborative interview. Participants chose, according to their comfort level, if they wanted to participate in a collaborative discussion or meet one-on-one.
The time of each interview was in accordance with superintendents’ calendars; however, each interview had a 2-hour allotment. Interviews were conducted in an agreed upon location that was meant to provide a private and comfortable location for both the participant and the researcher. Each participant was advised that her consent to
participate could be withdrawn at any time during the interviews. In addition, in order to protect the ethical quality of this study, the identity of the participants and their districts remained confidential.
To maintain the validity of the study, written consent was obtained from each of the participants and the interview protocol was reviewed. The protocol included the purpose of the study, an overview of the type of questions, and the approximate time needed for the interviews. Online as well as face-to-face interviews were scheduled and performed by the researcher after participants had agreed with the protocol for informed consent.
Another tool of narrative inquiry are field notes. Extensive field notes were taken during each interview, noting the nonverbal expressions of the participants as well as my thoughts and feelings before, during, and after the interviews.
Artifacts. Documents served as an additional source of information. Following the interviews, artifacts and documents were gathered to further explore these women’s experiences in the superintendency. Each participant was asked to share newspaper clippings, memoirs, notes, job postings for their positions; the current job description for