Methodology outline

The methodological process followed during this study is briefly outlined below:

1. Secure access to Roman skeletal material in a number of European countries. 2. Create a sampling strategy, skeletal recording forms and database to record the

osteological and contextual information from each site.

3. Carry out osteological analysis of skeletal material to determine age, sex (where possible) and presence of disease.

4. Collect tooth samples from 12 adults (six females and six males) and 20 non- adults (10 with skeletal evidence of metabolic disease and 10 without) from each site.

5. Where information is available, collect, translate and record contextual data (grave goods, grave type etc.).

6. Remove and clean tooth enamel samples from all collected teeth at Durham University Isotope Laboratory.

7. Process and analyse enamel samples using MC-ICP-MS and ICP-MS for lead isotope and trace element analysis respectively at NERC Isotope Geoscience Laboratory (NIGL), Keyworth.

8. Combine isotope data with osteological and contextual information. 9. Compare results with previously published lead isotope data. 10. Run statistical analyses to determine the significance of the results.

6.3 Sites

As this study aimed to go some way to bridging the gap in human lead isotope data from Roman provinces outside of Britain, the majority of sites were spread across mainland Europe (see Fig. 6.1). Samples from Lebanon were included as it represents the most easterly border of the Empire. Additionally, although human lead isotope ratios are well established in Britain, a small number of individuals excavated in Scotland and England were included due to their unusual burial rites. This section introduces the sites included in this study, using both published articles and unpublished reports provided by the curating institutions. Any documents not written in English were translated using Google Translate. All Spanish and Arabic translations were provided by Laura Castells-Navarro (University of Bradford) and Vana Kalendrian (University of Groningen) respectively.

Figure 6.1 – Map showing the location of the nine sites used in this study.

Musselburgh, Scotland; York, England; Ilchester, England; Tarragona, Spain; Barcelona, Spain; Caen, France; Ljubljana, Slovenia; Alba Iulia, Romania; Beirut, Lebanon.

6.3.1 Dealul Furcilor - Alba Iulia, Romania

Dealul Furcilor (Pitchfork Hill) is a large Roman hill necropolis located next to the urban centre Apulum in Alba Iulia, and was excavated by D. Protase in 1956-58, 1970- 71 and again in 2006 by G. Bounegru and R. Ota. From artefactual (most notably bronze coins) and stratigraphic evidence, the site is thought to have been in use during the 2nd to 4th centuries AD. The necropolis was a mixed rite cemetery with cremations and inhumations present, which was a normal practice for Dacia and other Northern provinces of the Roman Empire at the time. A total of 227 burials were excavated, and although variation in burial orientation was displayed the majority of inhumations were aligned east-west or west-east. Both simple oval ‘boat’ pits and more elaborate stone sarcophagi were used for inhumation burials and coins, textiles, ceramics, jewellery and

animal bone were recovered from both types of inhumation (Gligor et al., 2010; Ota, 2009).

Figure 6.2 – Plan of the Dealul Furcilor excavation site (Source: Ota, 2009)

6.3.2 Beirut, Lebanon

ASH 002 – A team led by Dr. Assaad Seif (DGA) excavated this site in 2007, and

dating based on stratigraphy, grave goods, and pottery sherds suggest the site was in use during the 1st to 4th centuries AD. Inhumation was the only burial rite practised at ASH 002 and the 122 individuals recovered were buried in north-south and east-west orientations. Grave types consisted of simple pits, wooden coffins, terracotta sarcophagi, stone sarcophagi, stone cists, and one masonry tomb with multiple cells. Grave goods found at the site include jewellery, glass vessels, coins, metal objects, gold leaves and shells.

ASH 163 – Recent rescue excavations led by Dr. Georges Abou Diwan (Lebanese

University) in 2015 at the ASH 163 site revealed 20 graves, all of which contained inhumation burials. Dating based on stratigraphy; grave goods and pottery sherds determined that the site was in use between the 1st _{century BC and the 2}nd _{century AD.}

The type of graves included simple pits, pits with stone capping, wooden coffins, and terracotta sarcophagi. The majority of individuals were interred in an east-west orientation, with only two individuals placed on the north-south axis. Grave goods were plentiful at the site, with many graves containing items such as ceramic unguentaria, glass vessels, coins, jewellery, bone objects, metal objects.

BCH 740 – Site BCH 740 is currently being excavated by Dr. Georges Abou Diwan

(Lebanese University). To date approximately 200 individuals have been recovered and while inhumation is the dominant burial rite practised at the site cremation rites are also represented. Types of graves included masonry tombs, simple pits, terracotta sarcophagi and wooden coffins, and preliminary dating using grave goods suggest that the site was in use during the 1st – 4th centuries AD.

MDWR 466 and MDWR 468 – Assaid Seif undertook excavations of sites MDWR 466

and MDWR 268 in 2009 and 2011 and using stratigraphic evidence and artefacts determined that the site was in use during the 1st – 4th century AD. The sites were located adjacent to one another and are thought to constitute part of the same cemetery. A total of 41 individuals were recovered from the excavations and at both sites inhumation was the only burial rite present. Single burials representing the majority of inhumations, however five graves did containe multiple burials. The inhumation rite showed some variation across both sites with a combination of simple pit burials, simple pits with stone cappings, stone cists, wooden coffins, terracotta and stone

sarcophagi being used. The MDWR sites were rich in grave goods with items such as glass vessels, spindles and spindle whorls, jewellery, coins, gold leaves, hobnails and shells included in many of the burials.