Methods of Data Analysis

There are several methodological strategies within the phenomenological paradigm that can be utilised when adopting a hermeneutic approach. The most common approaches are Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) (Smith and Osborn 2011) and hermeneutic phenomenology (van Manen, 1990). In the first stage of the research, the study analysed the data using IPA. However, in stage two of the research, the study utilised the method of van Manen (1990). A rationale for the shift from IPA to van Manens phenomenology will be provided within the following

section.

4.2.1.1 Interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA)

According to Langdridge (2007), IPA is one of the leading approaches of

phenomenology in the United Kingdom and is a widely adopted approach within qualitative research (e.g. Roncaglia, 2006; Lally, 2007; Warriner and Lavallee, 2008). IPA is a hermeneutic approach to phenomenology where there is less focus on description and where more attention is given to interpretation and engagement with cognitive and social psychological literature.

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of career transition IPA was adopted. Focus groups are not commonly associated with IPA analysis as this method is sometimes seen as compromising the

individualistic focus of phenomenology and the concern to understand personal experience. However, Smith (2004) has argued that collective discussions, such as focus groups, can be legitimately used as a means of generating data for IPA analysis. IPA allowed for a rich interpretation of the professional footballers

experiences during career transition to be established (Brownrigg, Burr, Locke and Bridger, 2012).

However, during stage one analysis, it was apparent from the findings that the footballers lived world within transition revealed important issues around, amongst other things, their relationships with themselves and others as well as experiences within their present, current and future time. It was upon consideration of these findings, that it was deemed necessary to explore the lived-experiences of the players further, in order to bring to light the lived world of the professional footballers during career transition more. Because of this, I decided to revisit the method of data analysis in order to identify and utilise a methodology that would allow for a more in- depth interpretation to be established. Therefore, it was decided that during stage two of the research, Van Manen’s branch of phenomenology was adopted and with this an emphasis on the lifeworld existentials. Over the process of the study and as I read more about phenomenology and methods of analysis, particular van Manen, I felt that this was more appropriate for the research (which I will explain below). What is more, because van Manen and IPA are based on the same broad principles, considering stage 1 and stage 2 findings as a coherent data set was not seen as a problem.

4.2.1.2 Van Manen’s phenomenology and the life-world existentials

Van Manen's four lifeworld existentials of temporality (lived time), spatiality (lived space), corporeality (lived body) and sociality (lived relationship to others) are considered to be an integral part of the hermeneutic circle, (van Manen, 1990). According to van Manen (1990), these existentials are especially helpful as they allow us to gain a richer insight into the lifeworld of a particular population. These existentials illustrate a fusion of the objectivist hermeneutic circle (part-whole) and the alethic hermeneutic circle (pre-understanding) as well as acknowledging the

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experience of a phenomenon in a whole experience and, also, the researcher’s role within the research process (Dowling, 2007). The objectivist part of the hermeneutic circle emphasises that part of the text can only be understood, or considered, as part of the whole. The word ‘objectivist’ was devised, as it was understood that there was a certain objectivity or personal detachment to the hermeneutics process. However, whilst the natural sciences would argue that they could explain theories by facts and, thus, take a total objective stance, in contrast the social sciences and, indeed

hermeneutics, are marked by a means of interpretation (which acknowledges the fusion of both the objective and subjective spheres of human understanding).

Therefore, the alethic part of the hermeneutic circle represents our preunderstanding and understanding: it recognises our being in the world as meaning makers. In this sense, we can never be totally objective when developing new understanding

because as human beings we always bring our historicity to the interpretive process. This approach therefore allowed me, as an insider, to both distance myself from as well as magnify the players’ lived experiences, or the ‘things themselves’ (where intentionality was implicated and my being in the world recognised). Van Manen’s approach enabled me to acknowledge my own relationship with the phenomena and this was seen as something of importance, not only during the evolution of the

research, but also as part of its interpretive process.

Additionally, in comparison to other approaches, van Manen’s hermeneutic

phenomenology is guided more by the relationship between the researcher and the text. Van Manen (1997) talks of phenomenology being ‘discovery orientated’, and ‘pre-suppositionless’, and, therefore, warns researchers against constructing a set of fixed procedures, techniques and concepts that would rule-govern a project (pg.29). In this sense, his approach moves away from a mechanical application of coding in an attempt to develop new understanding and instead recognises the important role the analyst plays in the co-construction of meaning. Therefore, the researcher is encouraged to form a strong relation with the phenomena of study and to, thus, enter into a personal dialogue with the text. It was felt that due to my position within the research as a former professional footballer, van Manen’s ideas concerning the relationship between the researcher and the data was ideal. Because of my prior experiences in football, I already have a strong relationship with the phenomena under study and this was seen as something that also served to enhance the

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research process. Therefore, my own experiences of difficulties as a professional footballer allowed the lived-experiences of the sporting chance players to emerge clearer, where my prior understanding helped to illuminate the interpretive process. What is more, my prior understanding of the culture of professional football served to help in the development of the interview schedule and during its process, where I was able to draw upon my own experiences and thus, allow these to fuse with the players’ experiences of career transition. My prior understanding of the culture also allowed me to acknowledge the sensitivity of some of the issues discussed and this enabled me to phrase questions, and prompts, in a way that encouraged the players to elucidate their experiences further. During the interviews, I was able to draw upon my own experiences and thus, allow these to fuse with the players’ experiences of career transition. In this sense, my prior understanding allowed me to reflect, privately, on my own experiences, whilst the players were discussing their

experiences. This enabled me to note differences and resonances, and subsequent prompting and probing was informed via this reflection. During the analysis of the interviews (across all stages), my own experiences of difficulties as a professional footballer allowed the traumatic and problematic lived-experiences of the players to emerge more clearly, without being muddied by other issues.

Van Manen’s (1990) approach to data analysis is less prescriptive and more heuristic; it is a guide to practice rather than a set of rules governing method. In sharing Gadamer’s (2008) sceptism of methods, van Manen proposes that whilst we need to operationalise philosophy, we also need to avoid setting out rules for

analysts. Instead, researchers are encouraged to adopt a creative engagement with method in order to prevent the possibility of foreclosure of understanding. The flexibility of van Manen’s approach, compared with other interpretive

phenomenological methodologies (like IPA), was particularly appealing in the light of the additional focus of the study in terms of wanting to explore the life-world of the players more deeply.

Hermeneutic phenomenology is, according to van Manen, a dynamic interplay between six research activities:

 Turning to a phenomenon that seriously interests us and commits us to the world:

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 Investigating experience as we live it rather than as we conceptualise it;  Reflecting on the essential themes which characterise the phenomenon;  Describing the phenomenon through the art of writing and rewriting;  Maintaining a strong and oriented relation to the phenomenon; and  Balancing the research context by considering the parts and the whole.

These activities enable researchers to develop a deeper understanding of the nature of meaning in human lived experience.

When approaching textual data, van Manen (1997) proposes three techniques that should be adopted when developing interpretive themes:

 In the holistic approach, we attend to the text as a whole and ask 'What sententious phrase may capture the fundamental meaning or main

significance of the text as a whole?' We may then try to express that meaning by formulating such a phrase.

 In the selective reading approach, we listen to or read the text several times and ask 'What statement(s) or phrase(s) seem particularly essential or revealing about the phenomena or experience being described?' The statements we then circle, underline or highlight.

 In the detailed reading approach, we look at every single sentence or

sentence cluster and ask 'What does this sentence or sentence cluster reveal about the phenomenon or experience being described?'

Accordingly, van Manen (1990) encourages researchers to apply the appropriate approaches that are deemed necessary for any given social scientific enquiry. Therefore, I utilised all the six research activities and techniques that are

recommended by van Manen in his phenomenological approach. Fundamentally, I maintained an interpretive stance and drew upon the four lifeworld existentials to illuminate the meaning of the lived experiences. The existentials can be used as a guide for reflection (as part of the process of interpretation) and subsequently during phenomenological writing. Please note, a detailed summary of the analysis during

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stage two of the research, including how the methodology was utilised, will be provided within chapter five.

I chose not to distil the collective experiences into an essential statement. There were commonalities across experiences however, I felt that I may have risked an over interpretation on my own part to provide this stage of analysis. My own

experiences were very close to many of the interviewed participants. The distillation of themes to an essential statement moves the analysis into the descriptive

paradigm and I found it difficult to engage in a moving away from what essentially would have been my own being to distil the experience. The players’ each had rich stories to tell and this furthered my decision to try not to find in their talk and their shared themes, issues that I could say was essentially the story for all – all experiences are unique in the game and I felt to do justice to the voices of those included in this research, I needed to explore such and constantly acknowledge my own and each individual’s Being in the study.