a Methods of Professional Development

When analysing the literature on PD in science education the previous issues relating to science education begin to reappear (Beamer et al., 2008, Duran et al., 2009, Khourey-Bowers and Simonis, 2004, Seraphin et al., 2012, Wee et al., 2007). Several PD programs have reported positive results with regard to teacher confidence, teacher knowledge, teacher pedagogy and inquiry practice (Beamer et al., 2008, Duran et al., 2009 and Seraphin et al., 2012). Some of the primary topics that emerge through an analysis of the literature on PD are; the amount of time the PD course consists of, the promotion of pedagogy and content, the use of experience, the use of tools and the use of technology.

It has been previously stated how Harlen argues for 80 hours instruction for the introduction of a new topic into a curriculum (Harlen, 1995). Duran et al., Beamer et al., and Seraphin et al., all discovered positive outcomes for their PD courses which all ranged at approximately 30 hours (Beamer et al., 2008, Duran et al., 2009 and

Seraphin et al., 2012). All three of these studies described how the teachers’ attitudes towards inquiry had been positively affected in this period and the latter two describe how the teachers’ confidence levels in teaching inquiry had been increased. Beamer et al. however discovered that their participants had developed an in-depth knowledge of inquiry through their PD course but failed, two years later, to be implementing the practice in the classroom (Beamer et al., 2008). This PD course was described as 250 hours total. Comparing this with the 24 hours PD provided to Irish teachers on the introduction of a science into the topic it becomes clear how much instruction was involved in the study by Beamer et al. While this is the case the study does show that with PD teachers can modify their teaching practice to be more constructivist in nature. Duran et al. may suggest a reason for why the extended period of time proved to be less effective than the shorter courses. They recommend that PD needs to be provided on a continuous basis for teachers, a sentiment echoed in the recommendations of the NCCA report (Duran et al., 2009, Varley et al., 2008a, 2013). By instilling the PD aims on teachers on a continuous basis the PD can ensure that the teachers are continuously implementing the ideas presented. Seraphin et al. argues that this PD may be in the form of an instructor led PD session supported through online supplemental sessions (Seraphin et al., 2012).

The next idea that emerges from the literature is the use of curriculum support tools in the classroom. The study by Duran et al. described how the use of pre-prepared materials aided the teachers in the practice of inquiry in their classrooms (Duran et al., 2009). These materials had been provided to the participant teachers during the PD. The teachers were then allowed to develop their own knowledge on how to apply the materials in the classroom. Beyer and Davis’ study discovered that when support materials were removed, teachers reverted to teaching without regarding the principles they had been trying to maintain using the curriculum support materials (Beyer and Davis, 2009). While this may be an issue with PD courses, the context of the NCCA results must also be described. The NCCA study however highlighted an issue with pre-prepared materials whereby the teachers were only using them for their lessons and not developing the practices that they were attempting to convey (Varley et al., 2008a).

The issue of context also arises in the literature on PD. Guskey argued how the lack of contextual factors in PD can result in courses which do not meet their outcomes (Guskey, 1986). This may be particularly prevalent in PD courses which are carried out externally to the classroom (Duran et al., 2009, Seraphin et al., 2012). Duran et al. (2009) found that the use of the 5E model resulted in significant changes in teacher’s beliefs about inquiry and that teachers believed that inquiry enabled students to explore more topics in depth than previously. The 5E model was discussed in Section 2.2.

Wee et al. determined that the professional development enhanced a teacher’s ability to develop inquiry based lessons but that there was little or no change in the teacher’s knowledge or implementation of inquiry (Wee et al., 2007). This could be due to the PD program being separate from the context of the classroom. There were however some positive outcomes from this study which determined that teachers could produce more inquiry based lesson plans, but their implementation of those plans did not meet their criteria for inquiry. This could be described as the teachers having knowledge of inquiry but, as a result of their PD program not being carried out parallel to their teaching, the effect on the classroom was limited.

Another element that emerges from the literature is the importance of teachers experience on their PD (Khourey-Bowers and Simonis, 2004, Seraphin et al., 2012). Shulman, Fullan and Loughran have all described the importance of a teachers experience on development of their teaching (Fullan, 2007, Loughran et al., 2000, 2001, Shulman, 1986, 1987). Seraphin et al. implemented a process of PD by including the experiences of other teachers (Seraphin et al., 2012). The use of technology was particularly prevalent in this PD which used a Learning Management System to allow teachers to meet online, video and text chat and share their experiences of the PD program. This system was generally seen to be a positive element by the participants who found that they could develop their knowledge further through the sharing of experiences.

As it can be seen, the idea of PD becomes quite complicated in education with many studies providing conflicting results with similar approaches and ideas. Through describing the methods and results of the studies above several conclusions can be

drawn. The first conclusion is that, generally, results of studies would indicate that PD should be a continuous process rather than a single entity afforded to teachers (Duran et al., 2009, Seraphin et al., 2012). This allows teachers to maintain and strengthen confidence levels and views they may develop through the course. The next conclusion is that curriculum development tools can provide worthwhile learning opportunities for teachers, but must be developed in such a way that the teacher does not rely on them in the classroom as a primary resource in their teaching (Beyer and Davis, 2009, Duran et al., 2009). Combining PD with the context of teaching seems to provide more positive results than separating the two (Guskey, 1986, Seraphin et al., 2012). This point follows from the ideas of a continuous PD course which aids teachers in remembering practices and maintaining confidence levels. Finally the importance of teachers experience can be seen to be a primary element of PD. By enabling peer learning and development teachers can develop their practice based on the experience of others and ensure that they are adequately prepared for their lessons (Harlen, 1995, Loughran et al. 2000, 2001, Shulman, 1986, 1987, Seraphin et al., 2012).