Methods Used in This Research

The literature regarding quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods research details their use in the social sciences, leisure and social capital (see 3.4 above). Numerato (2008), suggests that quantitative methods alone are inadequate in their ability to study and understand theories such as social capital and leisure and supports the need for qualitative methods to provide a deeper understanding of social capital (Glover, 2004; Verweel, 2005). Additionally, social capital is seen as consisting of different factors which may differ between factors but it also is the sum of these factors which may demonstrate differences which highlights its complex nature. Social capital is made of factors and the sum of its parts which may show statistical differences. A number of researchers therefore support mixed methods in social capital research including Atherly (2006), Das (2004), Rohm, Milne, & McDonald (2006), Tonts (2005), and Ward and Tampubulon (2002).

Combining methods through triangulation brings out the strength of each providing greater analysis and richer data (Tashakkori, & Teddlie, 2003, 2009). Studies using multiple methods are less prone to error attributed to the one method approach, and provide better data by allowing the data to check itself ensuring data validity (Patton, 2002). As stated above, the combination of the two methods in a sequential manner with qualitative followed by a quantitative stage, allows for a merging of data, with the first phase providing input and support to the other (Creswell, 2003). In this manner the qualitative phase informs the research providing rich data to support the quantitative phase of the research (Bazeley, 2002; Creswell, 2003).

This research model used a mixed methods approach, employing triangulation, and conducted in sequence a qualitative (elicitation initial study) followed by the

quantitative (main study). In its implementation, qualitative data was collected first to explore the topic further providing input into the main study which is an exploratory development and employment of a scale measure for social capital in leisure (Creswell, 2003). In terms of priority the quantitative approach was the dominant phase of the research. However, it had an alternative format in delivery with an exploratory

qualitative study first followed by the dominant quantitative section (Creswell, 2003). Use of the sequential model in this research allowed the researcher time to develop a better understanding of social capital from a participant’s point of view, providing rich qualitative data for initial scale development. Therefore, this research employed a mixed method model to be able to better articulate the concept(s), factors, data, and

understanding of social capital.

The initial research phase employed a qualitative approach, and adopted an exploratory manner for the study of the nature of social capital. It used aspects of elicitation studies where the researcher seeks the opinions of the community in devising the concepts (Azen, & Fishbein, 1980). This phase was developed to support the main study. It provided grounding and initial components and items which contributed to the initial scale development. The elicitation study employed focus groups and interviews for data collection and analysis. Aspects of grounded theory were used for the conduct and analysis of this phase of data collection and analysis with the ‘refined data’ providing

input into the initial scale measure. Following this a number of processes were used in the refinement of components and reduction of scale items. A panel of experts using a modified Delphi method provided feedback and further refinement of components and items.

Table 3.2 Process Used in This Research – Phase 1 Elicitation Phase 1 Elicitation study-Qualitative approach

Data Forms Process and tools used in the research

Literature Literature search of social capital, leisure, and leisure and social capital was conducted

Community views Focus groups (2) conducted

Club views Interviews (4) in depth interviews conducted

Raw data Identified applicable data in qualitative Elicitation section (tapes and notes)

Develop data categories Listed and categorized all statements onto individual index cards Partially processed data Sorted statements(data) into categories-Manual coding

Categories/codes Developed main item categories, e.g. trust, helping, support Themes or components

Major and minor themes emerged from the data.

Applied modified grounded theory concepts to refine statements into survey items

Themes and items Themes were collapsed to common categories, items reduced through iterations

Themes and item reduction

Panel of experts (Elicitation) provided feedback and assisted on further item and theme reduction

Large draft scale Further iteration of items and themes resulted in draft scale

3.6.1 Phase 1 - Elicitation Study

The initial stage or elicitation study employed a number of qualitative methods or tools, listed in Table 3.2. The focus of this section was to provide additional data to the literature and assist in the development of the scale. Two focus groups were conducted with members of sport and recreation clubs who would not be part of the main study sample. The focus groups were conducted two weeks apart which allowed for analysis of the first and provided time for minor change(s) to be made before conducting the second. After the focus groups were completed a number of in-depth interviews were conducted with other members of clubs.

Focus groups were conducted because they allowed for an organised discussion with a number of people to obtain a large number of viewpoints in a short time (Hollosko (2006). The interviews provided the researcher access to ‘rich’ data (Moore, et, al., 2005). Data was collected and sorted using manual coding with the researcher being immersed in the data using concepts based on grounded theory. This process lent itself to comparing data and emerging categories collected (social capital factors), and those noted in the literature (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). During analysis a number of themes emerged, individual statements (items) were noted and categorized under the emerging themes. The themes and items were refined further and reduced through a number of iterations.

After of the focus group and interview analysis a panel of experts was employed to further refine the data. This is common in expert elicitation studies and is also an aspect of the Delphi method. The panel combined opinions to measure uncertainty, providing objective explanations and feedback on items and topics (Arkles,

Mumpower, & Stewart, 1997; Creswell, 2003). The panel consisted of researchers, academics, government workers and consultants who were noted in their field and in social capital. Their role was to provide advice on items and themes emerging from the data, reduce items and themes, and provide general feedback on the initial scale. This was achieved through two panel groups completing a number of exercises regarding items, their clarity, focus, and relationship to a theme and the scale and is detailed in Chapter 4. After analysis of this information, the researcher conducted further iterations resulting in the initial scale of items measuring social capital. This initial draft scale was developed in the qualitative phase to be used as the first step in the main study (quantitative phase) as the pilot study.

This initial study therefore included the use of multiple stages of data collection and refinement and explored interrelationships of the categories of information (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). It provided valuable insight to the researcher on social capital from club members, produced items for the scale and gave additional information in addition to the literature. In this way it began the process of triangulation which was continued in

the quantitative phase of the research. Details regarding the elicitation method of analysis are provided in Chapter 4.

3.6.2 Quantitative Phase of the Research

The second phase (main study) adopted a quantitative approach based on positivism resulting in the final development and employment of the scale measure. This included further refinement and then distribution of the scale through a pilot study, and after analysis the distribution of this final scale to the study sample. Factor analysis was used for item reduction and scale model development. This quantitative approach was suited for the further reduction and testing of the scale measure which explored components and items of social capital of an attitudinal nature resulting from the elicitation study and the literature. After consideration of factor numbers, their relationship(s), and attitudinal nature of the scale, factor analysis was chosen as the most suitable tool to use for statistical analysis in the quantitative main study. The various steps in this quantitative phase of the research are highlighted in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Process Used in This Research - Phase 2 Quantitative Data Set Process undertaken

Draft scale Pilot test of the scale to 100 members of sport and recreation clubs who were not part of the main study sample.

Returned data Factor analysis conducted, and items tested (Validity and reliability) resulting in the main study scale.

Main study scale Scale provided to the main study sample, and collected. Returned data Analysis of final scale data.

Main study data Factor analysis conducted on 1080 returned surveys.

Main study data set Factor analysis measuring factors of social capital e.g. trust reciprocity, governance and others.

Main study data set

Analysis employing MANOVA of individual and club differences was conducted using social capital and factors regarding income, gender, education, age and recreation versus sport regarding social capital differences.

Main study data set Analysis of social capital levels in clubs.

3.6.3 Scale Development

The draft scale resulting from the final iterations in the initial phase of the study was prepared for distribution. This draft scale incorporated a scale of 76 questions

employing a five point Likert scale, measuring social capital through items linked under social capital factors. The scale was piloted to 100 members of both sport and

recreation clubs and when returned they were analysed using factor analysis. The pilot study after analysis provided a reduced scale of 42 attitudinal questions for the main study and after analysis a seven point Likert scale was adopted to provide greater variation in attitudinal responses. The new scale measured attitude regarding club social capital, with an additional 10 item scale to measure behaviour actions in the club.

After data collection the main study analysis consisted of a reduction of items for the final Club Social Capital Scale resulting in a reduced scale of 20 questions to be used in further research. In addition analysis of responses was conducted using MANOVA measuring social capital differences between various descriptive characteristics

including gender, income, age, education, and sport versus recreation for the individuals and clubs. This analysis resulted in a picture of social capital and its components in individuals and clubs in Victorian leisure clubs, and a Club Social Capital Scale. Details regarding the survey method and analysis are provided in chapter 5.