Methods used for the Tanzanian Project

With regard to the Tanzanian scenario it is evident that both qualitative and quantitative information is required for the development of the DSS for RWH management. Relationships and hence numerical data are required for building a model that is capable of making yield predictions for two crops (rice and maize) at different levels of water and nutrient application. An understanding of wealth status and existing conditions/management approaches is also required to help determine the best management strategies for the individuals or communities in Tanzania.

The strategies applied for the acquisition of qualitative and quantitative information for the Tanzanian project shall now be outlined.

4.2.1 Qualitative Research

Four approaches to qualitative research have been applied for the study described in this thesis:

1. Questionnaires – formulation of databases 2. Focus groups – survey information

3. GIS systems – general observations

4. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) – ranking procedures and observational information (Davies et al, 1999)

The methods were carried out by the agricultural scientific extension officers in the study regions. A structured approach was determined by both partners in Tanzania and Nottingham.

The purpose of applying these techniques was to determine details surrounding existing conditions and management practices in the two study regions. The information helped in determining wealth categorisations.

Table 4.9 below highlights some of the initial thinking behind the application of techniques and the information collected.

Research technique Information collected Format and collected by Questionnaires General characteristics – age,

sex, profession, residence etc.

Extension officers in the field and documented in tables Focus groups Perceptions. Wealth ranking

criteria. Determination of existing management conditions and farming practices.

Extension officers. Small meetings held with groups of stakeholders. Information recorded in reports and tabulated.

GIS systems Development of maps:

Highlight conditions of the two study regions. (Cropping

Formulation of criteria used for ranking procedures.

Determining which criteria are of most importance. Splitting of the wealth ranking into different headings. Obtaining general feedback and information on CPR used by local people.

Discussions and different PRA techniques such as the use of ranking cards and the assigning of levels of preference.

Information presented in tables and written reports and via verbal communication.

Table 4.9: Qualitative information methods. Brief description of the information collected by the methods of qualitative research applied

4.2.1.1 Questionnaires and Focus Groups

A questionnaire was compiled by the Tanzanian extension officers and Nottingham team. The objective of the questionnaire was to determine population details for the study regions as well as current management systems performed by the stakeholders.

For both regions a multistage sampling technique was adopted. Since the whole of Maswa district is categorized as semi-arid, all 78 villages were included in the study.

For the WPLL, stage one entailed selection of villages. Thirty-seven villages (25 in Mwanga District and 12 in Same District) were selected for study in WPLL. These included all the villages on the western side of the two districts that are categorized as

semi-arid by the District Agricultural Office. (Kajiru et al, Personal Communication, 2000)

Data collection was achieved through interviews and focus groups with key informants. Key informants were people who are assumed to be knowledgeable in RWH practices in their villages. Village leaders and extension staff at ward and village levels constituted the focus groups. The SUA research team helped to conduct these focus groups. Members of the team included Geophrey Kajiru and Abeid Msangi.

Focus group meetings were held at ward level, grouping together several villages.

There were two separate sessions of about three hours for each ward. The first session brought together village leaders and extension staff. The second session involved only the village leaders. Therefore meetings involved 10 to 15 key informants. Researchers from SUA explained the objective of the survey to the participants. Collected information included: demographic characteristics, land use, agricultural and livestock production activities, rainfall characteristics, water availability for different uses, and the potential for RWH. Techniques of RWH currently in use, areas and activities where RWH is mostly practiced and areas suitable for RWH for various activities were identified.

4.2.1.2 Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have been applied as another tool for representing the collected survey data surrounding the two study regions. It has enabled the production of maps that illustrate farming practices across villages and highlight the existing infrastructure of villages.

Information was collected by Ludovic (2003) through surveys and observational research carried out by the extension officers and SUA team in the study regions. The collected information was subsequently inputted within GIS software for the development of the maps.

4.2.1.3 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

Many PRA techniques including the use of secondary sources, key informant informal interviews, group discussions and air photo analysis have a long history. Others are continuing to evolve as the approach is used in more diverse environments.

The main advantage of PRA is that it is quicker, cheaper and more adaptable than traditional research methods (Agarwal, 2001). The technique focuses on groups rather than individuals. This improves the data gathering process by potentially making it more enjoyable. Accuracy is improved as cross-checking occurs naturally. Chambers (1989 and 1992) argues that this results in PRA being a much more personal process that helps to enhance the control of development.

Issues do arise with the application of PRA. Simply, if the chosen approach is wrong, then it will not work. The attitudes and behaviour of the participants in the process are key to the success of the approach.

One key factor for the application of PRA techniques is that the participants have knowledge and a history of working with extension officers, NGOs and researchers as this will enable the techniques to be easily adopted and incorporated into the study.

This knowledge was present for the Tanzanian study, as research into RWH management systems has been taking place there for the past fifteen years.

It was necessary to determine from the stakeholders what factors in their view influence the wealth of a person. These factors were determined for the different villages in the study regions and for the various professions of stakeholders. This brought about the formulation of many tables highlighting the criteria involved and the importance of each criterion for three wealth rankings – rich, middle and poor status.

PRA techniques were applied by the SUA team (Msangi, Personal Communication, 2002, 2003) for the determination of conditions and for understanding local infrastructure in the study regions. The techniques involved asking stakeholders to draw representative maps detailing what they think their village is like. These were

subsequently copied by the extension officers and recorded to help in producing the GIS maps.

4.2.2 Quantitative Research

The quantitative data collected for the Tanzanian project is focused upon agricultural traits, such as yields and levels of resources applied and the subsequent effects on crop yields. Climatic and topographic details are of importance as well, much of which has been made available via the use of historical data and through observations and discussions with the stakeholders in the field.

The application of quantitative information for the development of the DSS adds another dimension to the decision-making processes that can be included within the system. Predictive and quantitative models can be applied that can help to detail outputs that can highlight potential benefits from applying certain management interventions. Numerical data and models also help to add confidence to the options that can be determined from the overall system (Davis, 1999).

The methods used for collecting data for analysis and model/relationship building were as follows.

• Experimental work – Field trials (cropping systems), physical and chemical data collection (soil profiling) carried out by the research team at SUA.

• Use of existing agricultural models such as PT. This research was carried out by both the SUA team and the team in Nottingham.

• GIS – and observations. Carried out by the SUA team and extrapolated to the team in Nottingham for further manipulation.

• Statistical manipulations – following the acquisition of information.

Information was sent through to the team in Nottingham via Email (Word documents and Excel tables) and reports. Much of the data was in its raw format and had to be sorted by the team in Nottingham and cross-checked again with the SUA team. Manipulation and utilisation of the data was then

carried out by the Nottingham researchers for developing the relationships for the DSS.

The experimental work and GIS/observational research was carried out in Tanzania by the extension officers working in the study regions. Results were conveyed to partners in Nottingham for further analysis and manipulation. The utilisation of existing models for the formulation of data sets was carried out by partners in Nottingham, and verified with partners in Tanzania, to ensure the results and data being extrapolated from the models fitted with the situation in Tanzania.

4.2.2.1 Experimental Work

A limited number of field trials were carried out in the study regions by the SUA team to obtain the yields for rice and maize at varying nutrient levels. Plates 4.1 and 4.2 below highlight the situation for rice and maize respectively.