Chapter II: Poverty and Microfinance 41
II.3. Microfinance 45
II.3.3. Microfinance Loan Methodologies 55
In providing its financial services to its clients, there are different loan
methodologies that can be chosen by an MFI. Three basic loan methodologies that are
used by MFIs are presented below. In practice, MFI may offer one of these methods
exclusively or offer two and even all of these methods to its clients.
II.3.3.1. Group Lending with Joint Liability
Group lending scheme is pioneered by Grameen Bank in 1976 in Bangladesh. In this
scheme, borrowers voluntarily form a small group whereby group members are jointly
liable for each other’s loan; all members are barred from access to future loans if there is
non‐repayment from one member (Ghatak & Guinnane, 1999), i.e. termed as dynamic
incentives (Kono & Takahashi, 2010). This provides mutual and morally binding
guarantees in lieu of collateral through a peer guarantee mechanism, i.e. group members
motivate and monitor each other whilst implant social sanctions to non‐compliant
members (Anthony, 2005). Thus, credit risk is spread among borrowers who are
motivated to do a timely repayment through group’s peer pressure (Dusuki, 2008a).
Moreover, it places an incentives for group members to voluntarily assist potential
defaulter to repay the loan (Abdul Rahman, 2007).
As previously discussed, mainstream financial institutions are reluctant to lend to
the poor due to disproportionately high information costs relative to loan size since risk
profiles of borrowers prior to loan disbursement cannot be assessed accurately, i.e. ex ante
adverse selection, or loan use may be diverted from what is agreed upon, i.e. ex post moral
hazard (Hermes & Lensink, 2007). Group lending is able to lower these information costs,
mitigating ex ante and ex post problems by providing clear incentives to group members
to screen and monitor each other (Stiglitz, 1990). It is effective and inexpensive since
(Armendariz de Aghion & Morduch, 2005; Hermes & Lensink, 2007). Its effectiveness had
been shown by Grameen Bank in 98% repayment rate thereby replicated globally
(Anthony, 2005). Moreover, group‐based lending creates social capital and enables groups
to achieve wider social objective (Gomez & Santor, 2001; Rankin, 2002). It is regarded as
the best loan method in microfinance (Armendariz de Aghion & Morduch, 2005; Kono &
Takahashi, 2010).
On the contrary, critics argued that this very mechanism may induce agency problem that
ironically omit the poorest from gaining access to microcredit, i.e. excluded by group
members in group formation as not deemed creditworthy hence risky (Marr, 2003) or
deliberately rejected by MFI loan officer in group lending to avoid delinquency (Hulme &
Mosley, 1996). Problem also arises related to high transaction costs due to regular meeting
requirement especially if borrowers do not live close to each other causing interest rates to
increase (Shankar, 2007), and limited loan amount that can be jointly guaranteed by the
group curbs borrowers with growing business (Armendáriz de Aghion & Morduch, 2000;
Madajewicz, 2011). This high transaction costs would often raise the interest rates charged
to borrowers above the usury rates, thereby making the underprivileged to ironically pay
more for financial access. Even though some defend this by arguing that the credit access
opportunity could justify the fact that the poor have to pay more, it attracts criticism to
the practice nonetheless (Diop et al., 2007). Moreover, whilst repayment is theoretically
enhanced by exploiting local information (Ghatak, 2000), repayment is empirically found
to be enhanced only by social homogeneity and personal trust exist between members
(Cassar et al., 2007; Karlan, 2007).
II.3.3.2. Individual‐based Lending
Individual‐based lending scheme is a bilateral loan agreement between MFI and
sole borrower, as applied in traditional financial institutions, whereby loan is extended to
individual based on her creditworthiness and usually backed by collateral (Dellien et al.,
2005). Collateral needed may be in the form of tangible assets such as livestock and house,
e.g. in some Albanian MFIs, or assets having personal value for borrower without
emphasise on salvage value, e.g. in Russian MFIs. Novel method of screening was done
loan guarantee and character reference from member of local village committee
(Armendáriz de Aghion & Morduch, 2000; Churchill, 1999). As in group lending, dynamic
incentives is also utilised to overcome ex post moral hazard and strategic default, i.e.
borrowers lend with the intention not to repay the loan (Hermes & Lensink, 2007; Kono &
Takahashi, 2010).
Armendáriz de Aghion and Morduch (2000) argued that in the relatively
industrialized area and in transition economies, individual lending befits more than
group lending, since it is not restricting borrowers with growing businesses. Repayment
rate is enhanced by securing collateral and implementing dynamic incentives as MFIs are
capable to find novel way to gather information, monitoring and enforcing contracts.
Individual lending method is also observed in literatures to have lower transaction
costs than other methods, with further flexibility in loan start date and amount, plus the
absence of obligation to guarantee loan of other people as in group lending and village
banking (Westley, 2004). It is the method used by banks and non‐bank financial
institutions (NBFIs) in Latin America (Servin et al., 2012) and also widely used in East
Asia (Cull et al., 2007) and the Middle East (Abdelkader et al., 2012). Even group lending
pioneer Grameen Bank in Bangladesh had added individual lending into its loan
offerings, whilst other giants like ASA in Bangladesh and BancoSol in Bolivia switched
completely into individual lending method and discontinued their group offerings
(Armendariz de Aghion & Morduch, 2005; Cull et al., 2007).
Nevertheless, individual lending method is found to have lower outreach to
borrowers as collateral requirement deters poorest borrowers; individual lending method
is more often appealed to the less poor and entrepreneurial poor, i.e. those, based on the
poverty level taxonomy, who are in level of usually poor, churning poor, and the
occasionally poor (Hermes et al., 2011; Navajas et al., 2000). Thus attracting better‐off
clients in large MFIs with individual lending is often done at the expense of poorest
II.3.3.3. Village Banking scheme
In Latin America, FINCA International pioneered village banking scheme;
establishing access to credits and savings through community‐managed associations
typically set up at the village level – ‘village bank’ – consisting about 30 – 50 members.
This scheme is usually arranged by non‐governmental organizations (NGOs), which as
sponsoring agency facilitate external capital for subsequent financing to village bank
members from local commercial banks. This financing is commonly tied to member’s
deposit in the village bank (Morduch, 1999). Akin to group lending, peer pressure
mechanism is implemented herewith, ensuring timely loan repayment to village bank
sponsors which further assuring external capital injections. Differences with group
lending are village bank adopts bylaws, elects president and treasurer, and manages its
members’ loans and savings independently. It mostly retains internal accounts from
savings and time gap in interest and principal payment to its sponsors that can be
extended as extra loans (Westley, 2004). The goal is to accumulate capital internally so as
to graduate as an autonomous self‐sustaining financial unit in three years (Morduch, 1999;
Obaidullah, 2008a).
Compared to other schemes, village banking have greater rural focus and lower
average loan balance (Westley, 2004) and, like group lending, more associated with
poorer borrowers (Hermes et al., 2011). This model has been replicated mainly in Latin
America and Africa (Obaidullah, 2008a). However, the transaction costs is higher for this
scheme compared to other methods owing to self‐management and compulsory
attendance at village banks meetings, thus the real benefit lies for borrowers in the
savings and non‐financial services rather than being an efficient credit facilitators.
Inflexible loan start date, capped loan amount, and forced saving requirement are often
problematic to growing micro‐entrepreneurs (Westley, 2004). Moreover, original target to
transform into independent financial provider in three year time is often delayed due to