Geological time (not on scale)
igure 2.3: Bac gar content
2.2.2. Microfluidics capabilities in environmental engineering
used in groundwater aquifer and marine research. The term ‘micromodels’ is interchangeably used for ‘microfluidic devices’ in the groundwater research literature.
2.2.1. Microfluidic device fabrication techniques 2.2.1.1. Photolithography
Photo‐litho‐graphy is derived from Latin, meaning light‐stone‐writing. Photolithography is an optical pattern transferring technique in which micro‐patterns are transferred from a photomask to a UV‐sensitive polymer layer (photoresist) coated on a substrate. It is a high resolution transferring technique and can be classified as E‐beam lithography or X‐ray lithography depending on the UV‐light used.
2.2.1.2. Softlithography
The Whitesides group at Harvard University developed a non‐photolithographic strategy based on self‐assembly and replica molding for carrying out micro‐ and nanofabrication (Xia and Whitesides 1998). Softlithography technology is a term collectively used for the set of micro and nano‐fabrication techniques including replica molding (REM), micro‐contact printing (µCP), micro‐molding in capillaries (MIMIC), micro‐transfer molding (µTM), solvent assisted micro‐
molding (SAMIM), phase‐shift photolithography, soft embossing (SE) etc (Xia and Whitesides 1998).
2.2.2. Microfluidics capabilities in environmental engineering
The advent of microfluidics is inspired by molecular analysis, molecular biology, and microelectronics (Whitesides 2006). Introduction of microfluidics in capillary format in analytical environmental chemistry techniques, such as gas‐phase chromatography (GPC), high‐pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), polymerized chain reaction (PCR), have revolutionized the accuracy and precision of chemical analysis. The use of PDMS, which has several favorable properties, in microfluidics makes it possible to use them in a number of applications in
environmental engineering related to biological systems, involving cells and small microorganisms. PDMS is soft, flexible, biocompatible, electrically insulating, hydrophilic on oxidation, unreactive, transparent to visible and UV lights, permeable to gases and only partially permeable to water (Weibel and Whitesides 2006). The main disadvantage with PDMS is that it absorbs most of the organic solvents resulting in swelling and loss of its transparency, thereby changing its feature dimensions. Gas permeability may also impair its use with volatile organic compounds. Some of the possible applications of microfluidics in environmental engineering are described in the following sections.
2.2.2.1. Miniaturized prototypes
The science and technology of microfluidics provides easy and rapid prototyping in short time intervals, typically a day, with generation of multiple copies in a few hours with impeccable reproducibility. This ease of fabrication and adaptability enables researchers to easily simulate complex environmental systems in the lab. Microfluidic systems allow for spatial and temporal variation in reagents and nutrient addition to carry out desired reactions, replace media, and remove waste (Weibel and Whitesides 2006). As mentioned earlier, microfluidics uses very small devices that can handle tiny amounts of fluid volume and can therefore be used for manipulation of small amounts of samples allowing for isolation, visualization, and examination of very few or even single microorganisms (Lee et al. 2004; Wu et al. 2004; Balagaddé et al.
2005; Groisman et al. 2005; Cai et al. 2006). These characteristics are useful for in‐situ observation of the microorganisims, and for physically isolating cells without changing their environment. In addition, the use of quantitatively small volumes of media and reagents in microfluidics is helpful in generating low waste, which is important in protecting the environment especially when working with hazardous materials (Lee et al. 2005). The miniaturized microfluidic prototypes of groundwater aquifers, which have sizes generally on the
order of few centimeters, have already begun to replace traditional column experiments and are being used extensively at both Darcy and pore scales (Sirivithayapakorn and Keller 2003a; Auset and Keller 2004; Keller and Sirivithayapakorn 2004; Auset et al. 2005; Werth et al. 2006; Lanning et al. 2008; Willingham et al. 2008; Long and Ford 2009).
2.2.2.2. Laminar flow conditions
As the physical dimensions of microfluidic channels decrease their surface‐to‐volume ratio increases, therefore microfluidic channels always have very high surface to volume ratios. As a result, flow in microfluidic channels is predominantly governed by viscous forces, resulting in low Reynolds number and laminar flow conditions. This characteristic of microfluidics is useful in studying natural and engineered environmental systems that automatically pose or require creation of such conditions. For example, microfluidic systems are useful in studying bacterial and contaminant transport in groundwater aquifers where laminar flow conditions naturally exist. Microfluidics is also beneficial in studies aimed at understanding cellular activity and behavior at the single cell scale.
2.2.2.3. Concentration gradients
Due to the laminar flow conditions in microfluidic devices, two or more fluid streams may flow side by side without any appreciable mixing of fluid particles, creating an experimental condition whereby diffusion is the only mixing mechanism between the fluids (Weibel and Whitesides 2006). This property of microchannels enables the creation of steep concentration gradients of small molecules between streams flowing parallel to each other, which may be extended over several orders of magnitude (Weibel and Whitesides 2006). These chemical gradients are usually perpendicular to the flow direction and have temporal and spatial stability. This is the single characteristic of microfluidic devices that has been exploited the most by researchers in environmental engineering and other areas for creating chemical gradients in an array of
complex designs. In environmental engineering, MFDs have been used for studying bacterial chemotaxis (Mao et al. 2003; Lanning et al. 2008; Long and Ford 2009), reactive‐mixing transport (Willingham et al. 2008; Zhang, C. et al. 2010) and mineral precipitation in aquifers (Zhang, Changyong et al. 2010).
2.2.2.4. Environmental‐Lab‐on‐a‐Chip
Much of the work in microfluidics is focused on design and fabrication of the different components of a larger system. Current efforts are focused on integrating these components into a single device on a microchip plateform that can be automated for sample preparation, storing, and injection, chemical analysis (metering, sorting or mixing, detection), data acquisition, and waste rejection and disposal. Such automated devices are known as Lab‐on‐a‐
Chip systems or µTAS (micro total analysis systems) and are finding applications in the areas of biomedical sciences, clinical applications and homeland security and environmental monitoring of pollutants (Madou 2002). The primary products of microfluidics systems are expected to be used as sensors for detection of air and water pollutants via instruments known as microspectrometers, micro gas chromatography systems, micro ion mobility spectrometers, and infrared detectors (Madou 2002). The ability of this technology to produce repeated patterns of structures in a small space may be useful in prototyping complex environmental systems that require studying multiple processes at the same time.