Model 1 – the Implications of Laws 1 and 2a or 2b

imperative, that we act so that we treat humanity, whether in our own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only.²¹⁸ What Kant is emphasizing here is that each person has intrinsic worth and dignity and that, we should not use people or treat them like objects. Kantianism is therefore a deontological theory of ethics which holds that moral rules should be universalisable and that it should be applicable to the generality of people.

3.3.9 Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism which is based on the principle of utility, is the view that the goal of every action should be to promote the greatest welfare of the greatest number of people.²¹⁹ In the promotion of this greatest welfare of the greatest number of people, some believe that emphasis should be placed on the action in question and nothing more. This is the view that is referred to as ‘Act utilitarianism’.

Act utilitarianism is concerned with the consequences involved in any act. For instance, for a lie to be judged morally wrong, one should first weigh its consequences with reference to its ability to promote the greatest welfare. If an assassin comes after one’s father who is hiding somewhere inside the ceiling which one is aware of and the assassin asked about his where-about, what should one’s response be? Remember that denying knowledge of the whereabouts of one’s father in this case is to not tell the truth which is equivalent to telling a lie in the view of the absolutists. For the act utilitarians, there is nothing morally wrong in this act since it is intended to protect life and at the same time promote the welfare of the individual who is probably the breadwinner of his family. It is the performance of the act that advances the welfare of the greatest number of persons without giving considerations to societal, religious or legal constraints.

Rule utilitarianism on the other hand considers the general consequences of actions such as the rule that lying is a distortion of facts and is generally bad for the society. In this case, rules are considered valid if and only if their consequences promote the general good.

A very good example is seen from the Bergmeier’s family that got scattered because of the World War II. The man was taken as a war prisoner and confined at a prison in Wales while the wife was also captured and confined at a prison camp at Ukraine, and their children were scattered all over the places. Not too long, the man got his freedom and after a period of intense searching, was able to re-gather all his children.

However, unfortunately, none of them knew the whereabouts of his wife. News later filtered to the woman that members of the family had come together again and were seriously looking for her. All efforts to gain her release proved abortive as she did not meet the only two conditions for release; serious illness and pregnancy in case of women.

The woman was in a dilemma of choosing between committing adultery and remaining in prison. She finally chose one of the two evils. She arranged with one of the prison guards to get her pregnant, gained her freedom and joined her family.²²⁰

4.0 Conclusion

Moral judgements about anything at all are usually value laden. The way individuals or societies judge human actions to be either right or wrong show the value they place on such actions. This is why we hear of taboos and we hear of praise or blameworthy actions. For an action to be judged wrong for example, it must have violated at least a part of the moral codes or laid down rules which usually attract blame or punishment.

5.0 Summary

In this unit, we have described ethics (also known as moral philosophy) as a branch of philosophy that prescribes how men ought to behave and live the ‘good life’. We have also looked into some of the theories of ethics such as; Relativism which is the belief that ideas like right and wrong are not absolute but subject to individual interpretations;

Situationism which holds that there are no universal moral rules as each case is unique and deserves a unique solution; Altruism which holds that a particular human conduct is driven by an intention to profit somebody else, other than oneself; Egoism which places self-interest at the centre of morality and holds that a person has a moral obligation to pursue only those things that are best for oneself; Teleologism which is concerned with the consequence or end-result of an action rather than the motive behind the action;

Deontologism which is based on the notion of choosing one’s actions according to standards of duty or obligations; Categorical Imperative which holds that everyone should act only according to the maxim by which he or she can at the same time will that it should become a universal law, and Utilitarianism which advocates that every action should promote the greatest welfare of the greatest number of people. Finally, we examined moral dilemma which is a situation that presents difficult moral choice simply because the alternatives before us are all unsatisfactory.

220 Uduigwomen, A. F. 2006. Introducing Ethics: Trends, Problems & Perspectives. Calabar: Jochrisam Publishers.

p.72.

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

• What is Ethics?

• Briefly explain each of the following ethical theories:

1. Relativism 2. Absolutism 3. Situationism 4. Altruism 5. Egoism 6. Teleologism 7. Deontologism 8. Utilitarianism

• What do we mean by the term moral dilemma? Give your own example.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Agulanna, C. O. (2011) Moral Theories and Ethical Principles. Lecture delivered at a 2 Day Course in Medical Ethics Organized by West African College of Physicians

28th- 29th July.

Ciciloni, Ferdinando. 1825. A Grammar of the Italian Language. London: John Murray.

Hull, R.T. 1979. The Variety of Ethical Theories, Given at Buffalo Psychiatric Centre, March 27.

Kraut, Richard. 2018. Altruism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward N.

Zalta. Eds. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2018/entries/altruism/.

Lawhead, W. F. 2002 The Voyage of Discovery, A Historical Introduction to Philosophy, 2^nd ed., U.S.A. Wadsworth Group.

Roger Crisp. ed. 1997. Mill on Utilitarianism. New York: Routlegde.

Popkin, R. H and Stroll, A. 1969. Philosophy Made Simple. London: W. H Allen.

Reath, A. 2006. Kant’s Critical Account of Freedom. Graham Bird. ed. A Companion to Kant. USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Roger Crisp. ed. 1997. Mill on Utilitarianism. New York: Routlegde.

Stuart C. Gilman. 2005. Ethics codes and codes of conduct as tools for promoting an ethical and professional public service: Comparative Successes and Lessons.

Prepared for the PREM, the World Bank Washington, DC.

Uduigwomen, A. F. 2006. Introducing Ethics: Trends, Problems & Perspectives.

Calabar: Jochrisam Publishers.

Zaine Ridling. 2001. Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought. Access Foundation.

UNIT 4: METAPHYSICS