Conceptual framework
3.4 Moderators: demographic variables
3.4.1. Age
Despite the fact that age has been proven to be an important demographic predictor of interest in organisational settings (Ford et al., 1996; Minton & Shneider, 1980), it has received very little attention in IT acceptance research (Morris & Venkatesh, 2000). As a result, a few studies recently started to examine its effect (direct and indirect) on individuals’ acceptance and usage behaviour (e.g., Burton-Jones & Hubona, 2006; Morris et al., 2005; Venkatesh et al., 2003; Carveth & Kretchmer, 2002; Porter & Donthu, 2006;
Wang et al., 2009; Chung et al., 2010).
The prior research on age difference reported that increasing age is correlated with higher computer anxiety (reciprocal to behavioural and control beliefs PEOU and SE respectively) (e.g., Raub, 1981), unfavourable to PU (e.g., Igbaria & Parasuraman, 1989), lower attitude towards usage (e.g., Igbaria & Nachman, 1990) and acceptance behaviour (e.g., Igbaria et al, 1989; Lee, 1986; Chung et al., 2010). The rationale for control beliefs could be that older people are less likely to have computer experience, be less open to change, and consequently, be more susceptible to computer anxiety (Igbaria, 1990). In
6 However, over all approach is correlation for both direct and indirect (moderators) examination. The correlational results of direct relationships are presented with computation of ‘direct-effect’ but are not explicitly discussed (See table A-7 in appendix).
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simple words, age is positively related to computer anxiety. Igbaria’s (1990) argument was confirmed by Morris & Venkatesh (2000) who found that age reduced the impact of PBC over BI and BU due to lower level of SE and cognitive skills.
The rationale for the reciprocal relationship of age and PU (lower age had a positive effect on PU and vice versa) are consistent with the instrumentality effect and extrinsic motivations. According to this, the literature shows that younger people placed a greater importance of extrinsic motivational effects (job-related attitudes, opportunities for promotion) and hence perceived a higher importance of PU (Morris & Venkatesh, 2000).
From the perspective of normative beliefs, age increased the positive effect of SN due to greater need of affiliation (e.g., Igbaria, 1993; Morris & Venkatesh, 2000; Burton-Jones &
Hubona, 2006). For instance, Hall & Mansfield (1975) put that the importance of having a friendly supervisor and peers increases with age. Finally, the literature suggests that age is negatively related to the BI and BU due to an increased perception of habit (e.g., Burton-Jones & Hubona, 2005, 2006; Igbaria, 1993).
Recent literature suggests that age together with gender can exhibit a simultaneous effect on an individual’s acceptance behaviour (e.g., Morris et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2009).
Indeed, Levy (1988) cautioned that examining either gender or age without referencing each other might mislead the expected outcome. In doing so, Venkatesh et al. (2003) examined the combined moderating effect of age and gender in UTAUT. The author, in terms of predicting intention, found that the affect of performance expectancy (similar to PU) was stronger for younger men, and the effect of effort expectancy (similar to PEOU) and social influence (similar to SN) was stronger for older women with limited experience (ibid). In a similar line of research, Morris et al. (2005) recently examined the combined effect of both moderators in TPB. Supporting the Venkatesh results, the authors found a significant effect of attitude in younger men and PBC in older women towards predicting the intention. Hence, despite clear evidence of the moderating impact of age in IT acceptance literature, it is still hypothesised on an exploratory basis that:
H13a1: The influence of the predictors BI, PU, TF, RF, SE, IS, and GS towards BU is moderated by age, or (BI, PU, TF, RF, SE, IS, GS) X AgeBU
H13a2: The influence of the predictors SN, PEOU, IS, and GS towards PU is moderated by age, or (SN, PEOU, IS, GS) X AgePU
H13a3: The influence of the predictors PU, PEOU, TF, RF, SE, AT, NAT, and SN towards BI is moderated by age, or (PU, PEOU, TF, RF, SE, AT, NAT, SN)X AgeBI
H13a4: The influence of the predictor SN towards PEOU is moderated by age, or SN X AgePEOU
128 3.4.2. Gender and Masculinity-Femininity
The significant body of literature across the domains revealed the differences between men and women regarding the decision-making process. For instance, in academia, Wilson et al. (1994) observed behavioural differences among male and female academics in the decision-making process when selecting a particular course was examined. Powell & Ansic (1997) explored differences on the level of risk perception among male and female workers in the financial decision-making process. However, within the domain of information systems research, surprisingly the role of gender as a direct or indirect (moderating) construct on an individual’s behavioural acceptance has received very little consideration (e.g., Venkatesh & Morris, 2000; Gefen & Straub, 1997; Porter & Donthu, 2006). So far, researchers have examined gender as a biological, dichotomous construct (e.g., Venkatesh & Morris, 2000; Al-Jabri & Al-Khaldi, 1997; Venkatesh et al., 2003;
Gefen & Straub, 1997; He & Freeman, 2009; Wang et al., 2009) which constrains the understanding of the real differences between men and women on the basis of cognitive perceptions (cf. Venkatesh & Morris, 2000; Bem, 1981). Furthermore, the studies that explored differences between the genders were based on the mean differences between men and women in terms of abilities and psychological traits (Venkatesh & Morris, 2000).
In this section, the effect of gender is discussed on the basis of biological traits (male and female) as well as on psychological traits (masculinity and femininity). In doing so, parallel to gender, this section also covers the justification of the cultural dimension masculinity-femininity (MAS). The rationale for looking at both moderators together is based on Bem’s (1981) Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), which suggests that men tend to display more masculine traits (e.g., assertiveness) and women more feminine traits (nurturing).
An exploration of gender-based differences on behavioural beliefs (PU and PEOU) requires understanding of their conceptualisation within the TAM. According to the TAM (Davis et al. , 1989 p.112), PU is considered to be an extrinsic motivational effect, based on outcome performance through instrumentality, and PEOU is considered to be an intrinsic motivational effect based on the process of outcome performance. Support for this argument is found in the literature, which echoes that PU towards behaviour is strongly related to the effect of instrumentality, performance outcome and extrinsic motivations (e.g., Davis, 1993; Venkatesh & Morris, 2000). In the context of gender, Taylor & Hall (1982) in meta-analysis put that masculine traits were highly correlated with instrumental behaviour. Rationally, their argument is consistent with recent literature in social
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psychology, which asserts that individuals with masculine traits compared with feminine traits possess instrumental behaviour because they place a greater emphasis on earnings, recognition of the job, advancement and tackling challenging tasks (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). The effect of instrumentality, which asserts that men and masculinity, as compared with women and femininity, are highly influenced by the PU to develop the intention is also supported by a number of studies in IT acceptance literature (e.g., Srite & Karahanna, 2006; Venkatesh & Morris, 2000; Venkatesh et al., 2000; Venkatesh et al., 2004).
Contrary to the effect of instrumentality, which favours men and masculine individuals, a number of reasons are positioned in literature, which suggests that women, compared with men, tend to perceive a lower importance of PU. Out of many, one reason is the presence of a higher level of computer anxiety and technophobia within women (e.g., Harrison &
Rainer, 1992; Parasuraman & Igbaria, 1990). Research indicates that the lower the computer anxiety, the greater the experience, which indirectly increases self-efficacy (SE) and in turn improves performance (Bandura, 1977; Rosen & Maguire, 1990; Brosan, 1998). From the gender perspective, the literature (e.g., Igbaria & Chakrabarti, 1990;
Brosnan & Lee, 1998; Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001; Weil & Rosen, 1995) shows that women tend to score higher on computer anxiety and are more computer-phobic than men; consequently, women are more reluctant to interact with technology and perceive less on usefulness. For example, Cooper & Weaver (2003) identified the hindrance factors for women to acquire technological benefits and found computer anxiety to be one of the major barriers. In a similar line of research, Whitley (1997), in a meta-analysis, found that women possess higher anxiety and exhibit lower in sex-role stereotyping for computer and computer self-efficacy.
In terms of gender-based differences between the relationship of PEOU on PU and BI, the influence of women and feminine individuals is usually considered to be higher than men and masculine individuals. Rationally, the essence of the statement is based on the conceptualisation of PEOU. Davis (1989) referred to PEOU as a similar concept to computer self-efficacy, whereas Malhotra (2002) defined it as an intrinsic motivation which, in a later study by van der Heijden (2004), was examined as enjoyment effect.
Combining all these effects, Venkatesh (2000) proposed that PEOU is built upon determinants of internal control (self-efficacy), external control (facilitation conditions), intrinsic motivation (computer playfulness) and emotions (anxiety). Recalling the discussion relevant to the PU, that feminine individuals and women were more technophobic and higher on computer anxiety as compared with men, it is presumed that
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women perceive a lower level of computer self-efficacy, which in turn results in a lower level for the perception of PEOU. This proposition is also consistent with SCT, which suggests that anxieties and expectancies (self-efficacy and ease of use) are reciprocal to each other (Bandura, 1986). The determinant of PEOU is typically measured on the scale of difficulties in user acceptance (Davis et al., 1989), therefore a lower evaluation of the effect of computer SE will increase the importance of PEOU (Venkatesh & Morris, 2000).
Finally, from the perspective of external control (facilitation conditions (FC)), Hofstede &
Hofstede (2005) in cultural theory found that individuals with feminine traits compared with masculine traits rated a higher importance of FC in terms of service aspects and working environments. Hence, summing up the discussion, it is proposed that the belief PU in terms of instrumentality and performance outcome will be strongly influenced by men and masculine individuals; whereas, in terms of computer anxiety and facilitation conditions belief, PEOU and SE will be strongly influenced by women and feminine individuals.
The explanation of gender differences between the relationships of normative beliefs (SN) on BI, PU and PEOU, is based on the degree of differences between an individual’s understanding through which they comprehend the information and social pressure shared by others. Originally, the direct impact of SN (which is a reflection of social pressure) on BI was proposed in the TRA and TPB (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). This relationship suggests that individuals’ behaviour is based on the opinions of the people in their surroundings, even though they do not have any prior knowledge or positive feelings about a particular behaviour. Literature in social psychology and information systems research suggests that feminine individuals tend to be more tentative, socially oriented and concerned about others’ feelings, whereas masculine individuals are more categorical, independent in nature and concerned about their own feelings rather than others (Gefen &
Straub, 1997; Bem, 1981). Additionally, differences in biological traits suggest that women compared with men are found to be more expressive in nature (Taylor & Hall, 1982) and easily motivated by social pressure and affiliation needs (cf. Venkatesh & Morris, 2000), whereas men are more oriented towards interpersonal goals, achievement needs, and have high independence characteristics; moreover, men compared with women rarely rely on others’ opinions (Venkatesh & Morris, 2000; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005; Bem, 1981).
Hence, it is expected that the relationship between SN and BI will often be stronger for women and feminine individuals.
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The indirect effect of SN on BI intention through PU was introduced in TAM2 by Venkatesh & Davis (2000). This relationship explains that when superior or working colleagues suggest that usage of a particular system will be useful, then individuals start to take it as evidence of fact, which in turn establishes the intention to use the system. Similar to the impact of SN on BI, it is expected that the relationship between SN and BI through PU will be stronger in women and feminine individuals compared with men and masculine individuals, due to the high dependency on the internalisation effect ( similar to social influence), interaction needs and being easily influenced by social circumstances (Venkatesh et al., 2004). This argument can be supported by the study of Srite &
Karahanna (2006), who examined the impact of national culture on IT acceptance and found that feminine individuals showed higher influenceablity because of the intention towards agreeable desires, maintaining social relationships and interaction, and concern with the well-being of others and greater interdependence. Further evidence of this argument can also be inferred from Hofstede & Hofstede’s cultural theory (2005), which suggests that for feminine individuals, relationships and quality of life possess a higher importance in comparison with masculine individuals who place higher value on earnings, achievements and job recognition.
Finally, like PU, the impact of SN on PEOU is based on the opinions of people. For instance, if co-workers or superiors suggest that the system is easier to use and will be useful, individuals start to take it as an argument of belief. The concept of ease/difficulty is closely related to self-efficacy and is studied as a determinant of PEOU (e.g., Venkatesh &
Davis, 1996). A substantial amount of literature suggests that resource facilitation, supportive staff and available training showed a positive effect on self-efficacy in the early stages of system usage (e.g., Bergeron & Rivard, 1990). In this study, based on the influence of interaction and dependency on service aspects, it is expected that the impact of SN will be stronger for women and feminine individuals compared with men and masculine individuals. The reason is obvious as women and feminine individuals rated lower on SE (as discussed earlier in relation PEOUBI) and are more dependent on service aspects and the physical working environment (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005);
consequently, they are less confident and highly people-oriented and largely value the opinion of their peers regarding the ease of a particular system.
The discussions on understanding gender difference in the relationship of SN on BI through PU and PEOU, and SN on BI through PU, also helps to understand the gender differences in the importance of management support. The management influence
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pertaining to message passing to inform about intended innovations is expected to be higher in women and feminine individuals compared with men and masculine influence.
This reasoning is based on a review of SN, which suggests that feminine individuals are more interdependent, expressive in nature, influenced by the internalisation/social norms and sensitive to the needs of others. Additionally, empirical evidence indicated that women and feminine individuals, as compared with men and masculine individuals, are flexible towards compliance with orders and are most likely to accept behaviour if it is confirmed by the majority of people (see also Gefen & Straub, 1997; Venkatesh & Morris, 2000, Bem, 1981). Recently, in a computer-mediated communication, Guiller & Durndell (2006) indicated that women, as compared with men, were more attenuated and express agreement, whereas men were more authoritative and showed disagreement. The lower reliance/compliance of men upon others’ opinions is related to masculine traits, which shows them to be self-reliant and independent (Minton & Schneider, 1980). In fact, Venkatesh et al. (2004) found that masculinity is not a significant moderator between SN and BI.
The management influence pertaining to physical support is also expected to be higher in women and feminine individuals. The explanation for this is based on the criteria of personal characteristics and intrinsic motivations that an individual holds. Intrinsic motivation means individuals tend to try and welcome innovations in an organisation. As described earlier in the review of PEOU, intrinsic motivation is based on the concept of ease of use which is perceived to be higher in women and feminine individuals as compared with men and masculine individuals. It was also noticed that women and feminine individuals were higher on technophobia and computer anxiety, and lower on self-efficacy. Therefore, women may need stronger management support (e.g., training and skills development) to improve their performance. This argument is also consistent with Hofstede’s cultural theory (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005), which suggests that feminine individuals rated a higher importance towards facilitation conditions in terms of service aspects and the working environment, in comparison with masculine individuals. On the other hand, research in psychology suggests that men and masculine individuals endorse analytical and competitive approaches to solving problems (Venkatesh et al., 2004) which enables them to become highly skilled and score high on SE (e.g., Whitley, 1997; Gefen &
Straub, 1997). Therefore, men and masculine individuals may not require as much management support as women and feminine individuals because they may formulate their own opinions based on personal knowledge and experience.
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Despite the conclusion of the discussion that men’s and masculine individuals’ perception regarding acceptance behaviour is more strongly influenced by their behavioural belief (PU), while feminine individuals and women are strongly influenced by behavioural belief (PEOU), normative and control beliefs (SN, PBC, SE) and managerial beliefs (GS and IS), it is still hypothesised on an exploratory basis that:
H13b1: The influence of the predictors BI, PU, TF, RF, SE, IS, and GS towards BU is moderated by gender, or (BI, PU, TF, RF, SE, IS, GS) X GenderBU
H13b2: The influence of the predictors SN, PEOU, IS, and GS towards PU is moderated by gender, or (SN, PEOU, IS, GS) X GenderPU
H13b3: The influence of the predictors PU, PEOU, TF, RF, SE, AT, NAT, and SN towards BI is moderated by gender, or (PU, PEOU, TF, RF, SE, AT, NAT, SN) X GenderBI
H13b4: The influence of the predictor SN towards PEOU is moderated by gender, or SN X GenderPEOU