Motivation and Instincts 33

The research of Sigmund Freud (see Freud, 1966; Weiner, 1985; Zimbardo, 2002) refers to motivation as psychical energy, and that unconscious inner forces (instincts) within a person are responsible for behaviour. The theory centers on the attainment of basic needs through the id (the main personality structure of an individual). The primary goal is to satisfy the needs, but they can also be repressed (expressed in the theory as a predominantly unconscious activity). This is an extensive theory and far more complex than what this simplistic reduction is able to convey. It has influenced the development of other psychological theories either through continuation of its concepts or through rejection of its premises. Such a theory is not relevant for the current program of research due to the focus on primarily unconscious aspects that do not incorporate the factors of individual cognitions and environmental factors.

According to Pintrich and Schunk (2002, p. 24), “to improve students’ motivation, teachers need to know their goals, interests, and values; how students are affected by teachers and other students; and how to design instruction that teaches and motivates.

Freud’s theory offers no guidance on these points.”

3.1.2 Motivation and Traits

Trait theories attempt to explain observed consistency of behaviour across situations through traits (unique realities within individuals). Gordon Allport (1937) distinguished between common traits (used for comparing groups of individuals – culture, etc.) and personal dispositions (unique determining characteristics) in his theory

that defined traits as a determining tendency or predisposition to respond to the world in certain ways (Engler, 1995). An important aspect of his theory is the notion of functional autonomy (implying that motivation is not necessarily tied to the past) contradicted ideas presented by other psychologists and theories maintaining that motives derive from forces in early childhood (Freud) or from particular classes of needs (Maslow’s 5 basic needs) or instincts (McDougall’s 18 instinctive tendencies). A problem with trait theories such as Allport’s for the current study is the static and exclusive qualities of traits. Contemporary learning theories incorporate developmental aspects to the processes and skills involved in learning (developing expertise, life-long learning, deliberate practice). The key issue for educators is that intelligence, ability or other individual characteristic relating to academic achievement cannot be viewed as fixed or static; such a view limits the effect of instruction and individual learning activities on the acquisition of increased knowledge and/or skill.

3.1.3 Motivation and Volition

Volition and will are both closely connected to motivation, and there is an extensive body of literature drawing upon the classical philosophical traditions of Plato and Aristotle with conceptions of the mind including knowing (cognition), feeling (emotion) and willing (motivation). Human will reflects desire, want or purpose;

volition is the “will” in action (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). The notion of combining the concepts of both motivation and volition in a model of human action is well documented in the work of Hugo Kehr (2004). He describes motivation and volition as consecutive phases of action, drawing on the pioneering research of Wundt and Ach, using the well known Rubicon Model from Heckhausen and Gollwitzer (1987).

making phase (selection from various possible options), and a decision-implementing phase (putting the decision into action). Kehr found similar concepts in the early work of Wundt (described as resolution and activity) as well as Ach (described as an act and actions of will), which after a long period of research inactivity have been reintroduced by Kuhl in the 1980s using the terminology of selection motivation and realisation motivation. The metaphor of crossing the rubicon presented by Heckhausen and Gollwitzer represents the development of intention through which the two phases (both motivation – pre-consideration and post-evaluation; and volition – taking action) are at the same time separated and connected. Although two distinct factors, motivation and volition are difficult to differentiate in terms of empirical research, and models and theories allowing for the inclusion of both increase in effectiveness. These concepts are part of social cognitive theory, and the chapter dealing with self-regulation will continue to development these ideas – not just focusing on examining actions for the attainment of goals, but also for the examination of processes involved in the formulation of goals and the commitment to follow through to their completion.

3.1.4 Motivation and Operant Conditioning

Behavioural theories focus on external forces in the understanding of motivation, usually in terms of a response (behaviour) to environmental events and stimuli.

Motivation is defined in terms of rate or likelihood of behaviour (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002): using the example of academic motivation, students who are motivated to learn are more likely to engage, persist, and expend effort for task completion than students who are unmotivated. The operant conditioning theory (Skinner, 1953) assumes that behaviour is initiated due to specific antecedents, and followed by consequences (any stimulus or event influencing rate of future response or the likelihood of response when

the stimulus is present). This theory demands close examination of the effects of behavioural consequences, and various tactics are presented to encourage/discourage wanted/unwanted behaviour. Reinforcement is one such tactic used to increase the likelihood of response, and can be either positive or negative. Positive reinforcement (often referred to as reward) relates to the addition of a (positive) stimulus following a behavioural response that increases future response; negative reinforcement involves the subtraction of a (negative) stimulus following a behavioural response increasing the likelihood of future responding. Punishment is another tactic used to decrease the rate or chance of response by either removing that which is of high value or by presenting that which is of very low value. Skinner’s theory emphasizes the necessity of external forces for continued response, and accounts for this through the concept of extinction (non-response due to non-reinforcement). Operant conditioning and other behavioural theories are inappropriate for use in this research project due to the neglect of internal processes (especially cognitions). Internal processes such as needs, drives, cognitions, emotions, to name a few, are not necessary to explain behaviour from this theoretical position.

By excluding such inner forces, operant conditioning and other behavioural theories are not compatible with the theoretical foundation of this current project accentuating the need for self-motivated, internally controlled and managed active processes on the part of the learner. Behaviourism places the instructor or teacher at the center of educational processes, whereas the purpose of this research hinges upon a framework allowing for the learner to be the central figure in education.

3.2 New Developments