A multi-dimensional, multi-level framework of Readiness for Change

Several authors have criticised that no clear distinction is made between the individual and the organisational level of RFC, and that the interrelationships of these levels are largely neglected (Holt, Armenakis, Feild, & Harris, 2007; Weiner, Amick, & Lee, 2008; Weiner, 2009; Oreg, Vakola, & Armenakis, 2011; Holt & Vardaman, 2012; Vakola, 2013; Rafferty et al., 2013). Weiner (2009) and Shea et al. (2014), for example, acknowledged that RFC is a multi-level construct that is comprised of individual and supra-individual levels, such as teams, units, departments, and the organisation as a whole. Rafferty and colleagues (2013) also encourage this view and contend that the social interaction between individual organisational members facilitates the formation of “higher level collective phenomena” (p. 116) that result in RFC on a group or team as well as on an organisational level.

Furthermore, several authors have proposed a number of antecedents that influ- ence RFC on these different levels. Some researchers have for instance challenged the dominant focus on cognitive beliefs as antecedents of IRFC, and instead suggested that it is similarly influenced by other factors (e.g. Miller, Johnson, & Gray, 1994; Wanberg & Banas, 2000; Jimmieson, Peach, & White, 2004, 2008; Holt, Armenakis, Feild, & Harris, 2007; Choi, 2011, Choi & Ruona, 2011, 2013). For example, Rafferty et al. (2013) distinguish between cognitive and affective components of IRFC. While the for- mer encompass factors such as (1) discrepancy of the change, (2) appropriateness of the change, (3) principal support, (4) self-efficacy, and (5) change valence, affective com- ponents refer to individual’s current and future emotional responses towards a planned change initiative. Taken together both cognitive and affective factors may be grouped as the psychological dimension of change readiness.

Apart from the individual level, there are also several psychological factors that influence RFC on a supra-individual and an organisational level. In terms of the cogni- tive components, these are factors that refer to employees’ shared beliefs about their capability to perform the actions required for a successful realisation of the change. Specifically, these are (1) collective commitment, (2) collective efficacy, and (3) collec- tive trust (Holt & Vardaman, 2012). With regards to affective components that may in- fluence ORFC, several authors have identified (1) organisational leadership, (2) organi- sational identity, and (3) organisational culture to play a central role. For example, a

transformational or charismatic leadership style is said to have a positive influence on affective, emotional responses about a change.

Next to psychological factors, Weiner et al. (2008) and Choi and Ruona (2011) identified several scholars that approached RFC in more structural terms, emphasising organisational abilities (e.g. the adaptability and willingness of staff), resources (e.g. office space, training, access to information), and infrastructure (e.g. culture, leadership, communication, and information systems). While these studies primarily perceived RFC from an organisational perspective, Holt and Vardaman (2012) contend that struc- tural factors may similarly occur at an individual level. Specifically, the authors distin- guish between psychological and structural factors on an individual and an organisa- tional level.

Structural factors constitute the second dimension of readiness. They “represent the circumstances under which change is occurring” (p. 11), and can critically influence whether a proposed change will be accepted. On the individual level, they are com- prised of employees’ knowledge, skills, and ability and their alignment with the change situation. The organisational level is influenced by discrepancy, support climate and

facilitation strategies. While discrepancy is similar to its cognitive equivalent, support climate refers to the necessity of tangibles, such as rewards or incentives, as well as to intangibles, such as a receptive organisational culture (Holt & Vardaman, 2012; Bouckenooghe et al., 2009). The last factor, facilitation strategies, means that a well- elaborated implementation plan with concrete goals and objectives must be in place. Table 4 accumulates all of the aforementioned.

Level of Analysis

Psychological Factors

Structural Factors

Cognitive Components Affective Compo-

nents***

Individual

Discrepancy** _{is the belief that the}

proposed change is necessary

Current affective emo- tional responses an individual holdstowards a change initiative***

Knowledge, skills, and ability

refers to the extent to which organisational members’ compe- tencies align with the organisa- tional change.

Appropriateness** _{is the belief that}

the change is a suitable response to a given situation

Future orientedemo- tional responses an individual holds towards a change initiative***

Principal support** refers to an individual’s belief that change is sufficiently supported by organisa- tional leaders

Self-Efficacy** _{is the belief of an}

individual that he or she is able to cope with change

Change Valence**_{is the belief that}

the change is beneficial to the individual.

Organisational

Collective commitment** _{refers to}

the shared belief that joint actions can be taken that will lead to a successful change implementation

Organisational Leader- ship**** may critically influence employees’ emotional responses towards change.

Discrepancy*** _{is the perceived}

difference between the current state or practice and a more de- sirable state

Collective efficacy** _{is the shared}

belief by organisational members that in their joint capabilities to perform the actions required for a successful implementation of the change

Organisational Identi- ty**** _{can influence how}

change is perceived by organisational members.

Organisational climate*** _may

support change if sufficient tan- gible rewards (e.g. incentive systems) exist, and an encourag- ing intangible environment (i.e. culture and climate) is present.

Collective trust** _{refers to the}

shared belief that leaders will act in the best interest of the organiza- tion and its stakeholders

Organisational Cul- ture**** _{can influence}

and guide the emotions of employees within an organisation.

Facilitation strategies*** _are

clearly articulated goals and objectives that are supported by a detailed implementation plan defining roles and a system to measure progress

Table 4The psychological and structural antecedents of readiness for change on an organisational and an individual level (adapted from *_{Weiner, 2009; Rafferty et al., 2013,} ** _{Armenakis, et al. 1993; Holt et al.,}