versus sPecializaTion
The overall development of athletes involves striking a balance between multilateral development and specialized training. In general, the early development of athletes should focus on multilateral development, which targets the overall physical devel- opment of the athletes. As the athlete becomes more developed, the proportion of specialized training, which focuses primarily on the skills needed in the targeted sport, steadily increases. In order to effectively develop the athlete, the coach must understand the importance of each of these two training stages and how the training focus changes as the athlete develops.
Multilateral Development
Support for the concept of multilateral development is found in most areas of educa- tion and human endeavors. In athletics, multilateral development, or overall physical development, is a necessity (9, 25, 84). The use of a multilateral development plan is extremely important during the early stages of an athlete’s development (84). Mul- tilateral development during the athlete’s formative years lays the groundwork for
Human
later periods of training when specialization becomes a greater focus of the training plan. If properly implemented, the multilateral training phase will allow the athlete to develop the physiological and psychological basis needed to maximize performance later in his career (84).
The temptation to deviate from a multilateral development plan and begin spe- cialized training too soon can be very great, especially when a young athlete dem- onstrates rapid development in a sporting activity. In such cases, it is paramount that the instructor, coach, or parent resist this temptation, because it has been well documented that a broad multilateral base of physical development is necessary to prepare the athlete for more specialized training later in her development (9, 25, 84). If training is sequenced appropriately and begins with a strong foundation of multi- lateral training early in the athlete’s development, the athlete will be able to achieve much higher levels of physical preparation and technical mastery and ultimately will achieve higher levels of performance.
A sequential approach to an athlete’s development, progressing from multilateral to specialized training as the athlete matures, appears to be a prerequisite for maxi- mizing sporting performance (25, 79, 84). Figure 2.1 illustrates a conceptual model for a long-term sequential approach to training.
The base of the pyramid in figure 2.1 rep- resents a period of multilateral development, which is the foundation of the training program. This part of the training program includes multifaceted motor development, multisport skills, and some sport-specific skills. The variety of exercise that the athlete undertakes during this time allows for full development of the child’s physiological systems. For example, in this phase of train- ing the neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and energy systems are activated in various ways to allow for balanced development. When the athlete’s development reaches an accept- able level, especially her physical development, she will progress to the second phase of development, which is marked by a greater degree of specialization.
The multilateral phase of training does not exclude specificity in the training process. On the contrary, training specificity is present in all stages of a training program but in varying proportions, as can be seen in figure 2.2. Figure 2.2 shows that during the multilateral phase of training, the percentage of specialized train- ing is very small. As the athlete matures, the degree of specialization increases. It is believed that the multilateral base serves as a foundation for future development and helps the athlete avoid overuse injuries and staleness in training (84).
Support for the benefits of multilateral development can be seen in three longi- tudinal studies performed in three countries (18, 22, 46). In a 14-year study in the former East Germany (46), a large number of 9- to 12-year-olds were placed into two groups. The first group trained in a manner similar to the approach taken in North America, focusing on early specialization in a given sport. These athletes used exercises and training methods that were specific to a particular sport. The second group followed a generalized program that focused on multilateral development. This group participated in a variety of sports, learned a variety of skills, and undertook overall physical training in addition to sport-specific skills and physical training. The results of this investigation (see Comparison Between Early Specialization and
Multilateral development Specialized training High performance Childhood Junior athletes Maturation
E4492/Bompa/Periodization,5E/332859/Fig 02.01/Tammy Page/R1
Stages of development
Figure 2.1 Sequential model for long-term
athletic training.
Human
Multilateral Development, p. 34) support the contention that a strong foundation, which is established by using a multilateral approach, leads to greater athletic success.
Russian sources (22) often refer to a survey that resulted in similar findings. This longitudinal study concluded that specialization should not start in most sports before the age of 15. Some of the major findings of this study are as follows:
• Most of the best Russian athletes had a strong multilateral foundation.
• Most athletes started training at 7 or 8 years of age. During the first few years, all athletes participated in various sports, such as soccer, cross-country skiing, running, skating, swimming, and cycling. From 10 to 13, the children also par- ticipated in team sports, gymnastics, rowing, and track and field.
• Specialized programs started at ages 15 to 17, without neglecting earlier sports and activities. Best performances were achieved after 5 to 8 years in the special- ized sports.
• Athletes who specialized at a much earlier age achieved their best performances at a junior age level (<18 years). These performances were never duplicated when they became seniors (>18 years). Many retired before reaching senior levels. Only a minority of the athletes who specialized at a young age were able to improve performance at senior level.
• Many top-class athletes started to train in an organized environment at the junior level (14-18 years of age). They had never been junior champions or held national records, but at the senior age many of them achieved national- and international-class performances.
• Most athletes considered their success attributable to the multilateral founda- tion built during childhood and junior age.
Multilateral development Specialized training 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 A ge (y ear s) 40 60 80 20
E4492/Bompa/Periodization,5E/332888/Fig 02.02/Tammy Page/R3-alw
Figure 2.2 Comparison between early specialization and multilateral development.
Human
The third study, conducted by Carlson (18), analyzed the training background and development patterns of elite Swedish tennis players who were very successful in international competition. The subjects were divided into a study group that consisted of elite adult tennis players and a control group that was matched by age, gender, and junior rankings. The most relevant findings are shown in the summary of research on page 35. Both groups of players were equal in skills up to the age group of 12 to 14; the difference in skills between the two groups occurred after this age. Additional findings in the control group were that skill development was fast during early adolescence and these players participated in an atmosphere of high demand for success. Interestingly, the control group players specialized at age 11, whereas the study group did not begin to specialize until the age of 14. In fact, the study group participated in a wide variety of sporting activities during early adolescence, whereas the control group performed specialized, professional-like training. Although the control group demonstrated significantly greater performances as juniors, the study group demonstrated their highest levels of performance as senior athletes. The work of Carlson (18) supports the importance of a multilateral training approach that is marked by all-around sport engagement and less professional-type training during early childhood and adolescence.
The coach should consider multilateral training in the early stages of an athlete’s development as the foundation for future specialization and athletic mastery (58). Multilateral training should be used mostly when training children and juniors (9, 58). In these stages of athlete development it is essential that a strong vocabu- lary of physical and psychological attributes be developed. Physical skill sets that are essential during this phase of training include natural movements like run- ning, jumping, climbing, and throwing (58, 79). Additionally, the development of speed, agility, coordination, flexibility, and overall general fitness is important at this phase of development. These training goals are best accomplished through diverse activities that allow for the development of several biomotor abilities. In this process, the young athlete will be taught a diverse group of exercise techniques, which include some of the technical aspects of the selected sport. All of these skill sets will be used as the athlete becomes more developed and multilateral training becomes less of a focus.
coMParison BeTween early sPecializaTion
anD MulTilaTeral DeveloPMenT
Multilateral Development
• Slower performance improvement
• Best performances at age 18 or older when the athlete has reached physiological and psychological maturation
• Consistent and progressive performance in competition
• Longer athletic career
• Fewer injuries as a result of more progressive loading patterns and overall physiological development
early specialization
• Quick performance improvement
• Best performances achieved at 15 to 16 years of age because of quick adaptation • Inconsistent performance in competition • High incidence of burnout and quitting
sport by age 18
• Increased risk of injury because of forced adaptation and lack of physiological devel- opment
Based on Harre 1982 (46).
Human
All athletes should participate in multilateral training to some degree throughout their careers (figure 2.2). The greatest amount of multilateral training occurs during the early stages of development, and less focus on this type of training occurs as the athlete progresses. Multilateral development is essential to optimize the effects of specialized training later in the athlete’s career.
specialization
Whether training on a field, in a pool, or in a gymnasium, the athlete eventually will specialize in a sport or event. Training for a sport results in physiological adaptations that are specific to the activity’s movement pattern, metabolic demand, force genera- tion pattern, contraction type, and muscle recruitment pattern (28, 83, 91). The type of training used has a very specific effect on the athlete’s physiological characteristics (21). For example, endurance training has the ability to stimulate both central and peripheral adaptations, which can include altering neural recruitment patterns, modi- fying bioenergetic or metabolic factors, and stimulating significant skeletal muscle alterations (2, 48). Conversely, resistance training results in significant alterations to the contractile machinery, neuromuscular system, and bioenergetic or metabolic pathways (1, 21). Contemporary research suggests that skeletal muscle exhibits a large amount of plasticity in response to different modalities of resistance or endurance training resulting in the activation or deactivation of different molecular signaling pathways depending on the type of training encountered (4, 6, 7, 21, 67, 68, 102). Specific adaptations are not limited to physiological responses, because technical, tactical, and psychological traits are also developed in response to specialized train- ing. It is very likely that each sporting activity can develop attributes that allow the athlete to achieve a high level of mastery.
Specialization is a complex nonunilateral process that is based on multilateral development. As an athlete progresses from a beginner to a mature athlete who has