Negative Aging Meta and Self stereotypes and Older Employees‘ perceived Ability, Motivation and Support

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Another important research finding presented in this study, is that negative aging meta- and self-stereotypes contribute differently to older employees‘ perceived AMS to learn. Specifically, negative aging meta-stereotypes influences of older employees‘

perceived AMS to learn only older employees‘ perceived motivation to learn, while

negative aging self-stereotypes does not influence any of these factors. Negative aging meta-stereotypes are, therefore, a determinant of older employees‘ perceived motivation to learn. Below, the findings found regarding the influence of negative aging meta- and self-stereotypes, on the one hand, and older employees‘ AMS to learn, on the other hand, are explained in more detail.

Negative Aging Meta-stereotypes and Older Employees‟ perceived Ability to Learn

No support is found that that negative aging meta-stereotypes are negatively related to older employees‘ perceived ability to learn (hypothesis 2a). This indicates that there is no evidence found that the more older employees belief that they are negatively stereotyped by members of the ‗out-group‘ (e.g., colleagues), the less they perceive themselves as being able to learn. In other words, this study found no support that older employees who perceive more negative aging meta-stereotypes, perceive their ability of improving and developing their knowledge and skills as less. This is in contrast with the findings of the study of Klein et al. (2007). Klein et al. (2007) found that Sub-Saharan Africans living in Belgium who were told that Africans‘ average performance on a culture-free test was generally worse to Belgian‘s performance (i.e., negative meta-stereotypes) had a significantly lower perception of themselves as efficient than Sub-Saharan Africans living in Belgium who were told that Africans‘ average performance on a culture-free test was generally equal to Belgian‘s performance or when no such information was given.

In the study of Klein et al. (2007) objective knowledge of respondents was measured using a culture-free intelligence test. In the current study, no form of objective knowledge is measured. Because of this, the chance that respondents might have given social desirable answers is higher in the current study than in the study of Klein et al. (2007) (King & Bruner, 2000). Social desirable answers are ―answers which reflect an attempt to enhance some social desirable characteristics or minimize the presence of some social undesirable characteristics‖ (DeMaio, 1984, p. 257). Since a culture-free intelligence test (in which responses could not be faked) and self-efficacy (in which responses could be faked) are measured at the same

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time, it might not be social desirable for the respondents to fake their answers regarding their self-efficacy. It is not social desirable to give answers that are not in line with the results of the tests. No form of objective knowledge is measured in the current study. Therefore, it might be social desirable for the respondents in the current study to give more positive answers about their negative aging meta- stereotypes and their perceived ability to learn. Moreover, because of the priming of the negative aging meta- and self-stereotypes before asking for the items about older employees‘ perceived AMS to learn, some older employees might felt inferior about these primed items. In order to reduce these feelings of inferiority, these older employees might have tried to overcompensate for it. According to Adler (1917), people might shadow their shortcomings by excelling in another area. That the chance that some older employees might have given social desirable answers is more likely in the current study and that some older employees might have given more positive answers in order to overcompensate for their felt inferiority, might explain that this study did not found evidence for a negative relationship between negative aging meta-stereotypes and older employees‘ perceived ability to learn.

Negative Aging Meta-stereotypes and Older Employees‟ perceived Motivation to Learn

Evidence is found that negative aging meta-stereotypes are negatively related to older employees‘ perceived motivation to learn (hypothesis 2b). This indicates that the more older employees belief that they are negatively stereotyped by members of the ‗out-group‘ (e.g., colleagues), the less they perceive themselves as being motivated to learn. In other words, this study found evidence that the older employees who perceive more negative aging meta-stereotypes, perceive themselves also as less desired to acquire new knowledge and skills. Based on the literature review, it could be inferred that older employees might perceive participation in learning activities as a threat for their need for a positive social identity, and, therefore, it is more likely that they are less motivated to participate in learning activities. Based on the ‗stereotype threat‘ (Steele et al., 2002), it is likely that older employees who belief that others perceive them in negative terms, might be less motivated to learn since they might be afraid to confirm or to be reduced to this negative aging stereotype. In line with this, the study of Gaillard and Desmette

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significantly lower when negative stereotypic information about older employees‘ ability was given than when positive stereotypic information about older employees‘ ability was given.

Negative Aging Meta-stereotypes and Older Employees‟ perceived Support to Learn

This study found no support that negative aging meta-stereotypes are negatively related to older employees‘ perceived support to learn (hypothesis 2c). This indicates that there is no evidence found that the more older employees belief that they are negatively stereotyped by members of the ‗out-group‘ (e.g., colleagues), the less they perceive to receive support regarding learning. In other words, this study found no support that older employees who perceive more negative aging meta-stereotypes, perceive to receive less organizational support regarding learning. This might be explained in that this study focuses on how older employees belief that they are negatively stereotyped by their colleagues, while older employees‘ perceived support to learn refers to organizational support regarding learning. When this study had focused on the influence of how older employees belief that they are negatively stereotyped by the organization on older employees‘ perceived organizational support regarding learning, a significant relationship might been found. However, future research should prove this.

Negative Aging Self-stereotypes and Older Employees‟ perceived Ability to Learn

No support is found that negative aging self-stereotypes are negatively related to older employees‘ perceived ability to learn (hypothesis 4a). This indicates that there is no evidence found that the more older employees apply previously held negative age stereotypes to themselves as they become older, the less they perceive themselves as being able to learn. In other words, this study found no support that older employees who perceive more negative aging self-stereotypes, perceive their ability of improving and developing their knowledge and skills as less. This is in contrast with the findings of the studies of Levy (1996) and Levy et al. (2000a). These studies found evidence that negative aging self-stereotypes negatively influence older employees perceived memory self-efficacy (Levy, 1996) and mathematical self- efficacy (Levy et al., 2000a).

In the study of Levy (1996) and Levy et al. (2000a) objective knowledge of respondents were measured using respectively a memory task and two sets of

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mathematical and verbal tasks. In the current study, no form of objective knowledge is measured. Because of this (as is mentioned in more detail above), the chance that respondents might have given social desirable answers is higher in the current study than in the studies of Levy (1996) and Levy et al. (2000a) (King & Bruner, 2000). In addition, as a result of the priming of the negative aging meta- and self-stereotypes, some older employees might have tried to overcompensate the feelings of inferiority. This might explain that this study did not found evidence for a negative relationship between negative aging meta-stereotypes and older employees‘ perceived ability to learn.

The findings of this study are however also in contrast to the study Maurer et al.

(2008). By means of a two-wave survey, they found that the older employees‘ self-

efficacy about development were lower, when these employees had higher beliefs that older employees are less able to learn. A possible explanation for these contradicting results might be that the study of Maurer et al. (2008) focuses especially on older employees‘ beliefs regarding the ability to learn of older employees, while this study focused more on the general view of older employees‘ beliefs about aging. However, future research should prove this.

Negative Aging Self-stereotypes and Older Employees‟ perceived Motivation to Learn

This study found no evidence that negative aging self-stereotypes are negatively related to older employees‘ perceived motivation to learn (hypothesis 4b). This indicates there is no evidence found that the more older employees apply previously held negative age stereotypes to themselves as they become older, the less they perceive themselves as being motivated to learn. In other words, this study found no support that the older employees who perceive more negative aging self-stereotypes, perceive themselves also as less desired to acquire new knowledge and skills. This is in contrast with the findings of the studies of Horton et al. (2008) and Levy et al. (2000b). Horton et al. (2008) found by means of an interview that the perception that one is aging can lead to less motivation to exercise. Moreover, Levy et al. (2000b) found by means of an experiment that negative aging self-stereotypes have an negative influence on one‘s willingness to live. A possible explanation for these contradicting results might be again social desirable bias. Because of the self- reported research design of the current study, more respondents might have given

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social desirable answers in comparison to the studies of Horton et al. (2008) and Levy et al. (2000b) (King & Burner, 2000).

The finding of this study is however also in contrast with the findings of the study of Maurer et al. (2008). By means of a two-wave survey, they found that the motivation to participate in learning and development activities of employees were lower, when these employees had higher beliefs that older employees are less able and willing to learn. A possible explanation for these contradicting results might be that the study of Maurer et al. (2008) focuses especially on older employees‘ beliefs about the ability and willingness to learn of older employees, while this study focused more on the general view of older employees‘ beliefs about aging. However, future research should prove this.

5.1.4. Older Employees‟ perceived Ability, Motivation and/or Support to Learn as