Negative ethnicity

The word ethnic according to Mindel (1976: 4) is derived from the Greek word

ethnikos meaning people or nation. An ethnic group consists of those who share a

unique socio-cultural heritage that is passed on from generation to generation.

Members of an ethnic group identified with one another, usually on the basis of a

presumed common genealogy or ancestry (Smith 2004). Ethnic identity often refers

to recognition by others as a distinct group with common cultural, linguistic,

religious, behavioral and biological traits (Mindel, 1976; Ottawa 1992:12). Ethnicity

is dynamic, changing with new immigration, intermarriage and human development.

In this way, new identities may be formed (Mindel 1976).

Gecaga (2002b) affirms that ethnicity greatly accounts for political instability in

many African countries. Some examples include the 1994 Rwanda genocide that left

millions dead; “ethnic” cleansing in the DRC, clan clashes in Nigeria, Somalia, and

Sudan just to mention a few. Wanjala (2002), Nasong‟o (2007) and Oloo (2007)

political offices have entrenched ethnic politics in the country. Scholars argue that

ethnic historical relations in the political, economic and socio-cultural domain can

either mitigate communities or create ethnic segregation (Peil and Oyeneye, 1998).

Wamwere (2008) as well argues that ethnicity can be used either positively or

negatively. Negative ethnicity occurs where ethnic groups are rallied together

against others. In cases where negative ethnicity takes centre stage in the political

agenda, residents have to live in fear of attacks with retaliations being imminent.

Negative ethnicity in Kenya has brought out ethnic tensions, conflicts and

segregations among other evils. In some instances, ethnicity has been conveniently

and periodically manipulated by political elites (Gifford, 2009); Peil and Oyeneye

(1998), and Omosa et al (2006) affirm that many politicians in Kenya mobilize

support along ethnic bases.

Kenya in general has witnessed ethnic conflict commonly referred to as tribal

clashes during the pre and post-colonial eras arising from ethnic stereotype

(Wamwere, 2008:20). A stereotype is a popular belief about specific groups or

communities based on prior assumptions. Such stereotypes have been transmitted

through oral tradition over the years from one generation to another. Stereotypes are

informed by cultural backgrounds and lifestyles (Rothchild, 1997:36). In Kenya, the

Agikuyu are stereotyped with monetary greed, Akamba with witchcraft, Luo with

pride, Abaluyia with domestic labour and Maasai with ignorance (Muthumbi,

2006:47). This leads to a feeling of superiority or inferiority against the other. It has

Several acts of stereotyping have been reported in MIS (FGD 3, 23:10: 2010; FGD

6, 24:10:2010; FGD 4, 28:10:2010). For instance, during 2007-2008 PEV, some

members of the Luo community were subjected to forced circumcision by the

Agikuyu and Akamba communities (CIPEV, 2008). The perceptions of hatred,

superiority complex and selfishness contribute to making prejudgments and

misguided opinions about other people. This contributes to conflict in MIS as each

community tries to defend its cultural heritage (Oduol, OI: 21:11:2010; Bootman,

2000:76; Wamwere 2008:19). Positive ethnicity, based on cultural identity, gave

birth to negative ethnicity where large ethnic groups dominate small ones, stifle their

freedoms and trample on their very existence. Minorities are subjugated and because

of the fact that they have been completely eclipsed; their plight is not heard

(Bootman, 2000:76; Wamwere 2008:19).

Since the re-introduction of multi-party politics in Kenya through constitutional

amendments of Section 2A in the 1990s, virtually all the political parties formed

thereafter had ethnic trappings. For example, Forum for Restoration of Democracy

(FORD) and National Development Party (NDP) tended to be aligned to Luo;

FORD Kenya had a big following from the Abaluhya, FORD Asili and Democratic

Party (DP) by Agikuyu, Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) to Akamba and FORD

People with Abagusii. This same trend has remained with ODM inclined to the Luo;

Party of National Unity (PNU) had the Agikuyu and Orange Democratic Movement

(ODM) Kenya towards the Akamba. The violence in MIS after the 2007 General

Election, for example, as respondents noted, was attributed to the feelings that if

ODM or PNU won, the Luo or Agikuyu community would benefit economically.

From the early 1990s, various ethnic groups have engaged in or dared to carry out “ethnic cleansing” in MIS (FGD 3, 23:10: 2010; FGD 6, 24:10:2010; FGD 4,

28:10:2010). Ethnic cleansing is a purposeful move designed by a group to

intimidate, injure, harass or forcefully remove another ethnic group from certain

geographical areas and/or even kill (Omosa, et al, 2006). For instance, in October

2002, at least two people were reported killed while a dozen sustaining injuries

when ethnic cleansing by Mungiki began in MIS, following the election of Hon.

William Omondi, a Luo (Githae, OI, 23:11:2010). Police mounted a door to door

search of members of the outlawed Mungiki sect who were perceived to have

terrorized the Luo residents (Nguni, 22:11:2010; FGD 3, 23:10: 2010; FGD 6,

24:10:2010; FGD 4, 28:10:2010). The worst manifestation of “ethnic cleansing” was

unleashed during 2007-2008 PEV (CIPEV, 2008). In MIS, over 12 people lost their lives through ethnic “cleansing” which was aimed at punishing and displacing the

“opponent” community (CIPEV, 2008). In areas dominated by ODM, the PNU

supporters were attacked and displaced and vice versa. The victims‟ blood was

allegedly used to mark ethnic boundaries and write warning sign posts (Nguni,

22:11:2010; FGD 3, 23:10: 2010; FGD 6, 24:10:2010; FGD 4, 28:10:2010).

Politicians use ethnic cleansing activities for political gain (Rotich, 2002; 43). First,

attacks are directed to minority ethnic groups in a particular area with a view to

creating an exodus from the area. By doing this, the minority group is displaced

during electioneering period and cannot vote (Wamwere, 2008; CIPEV, 2008). Second, the “ethnic cleansing” after elections is intended to punish a particular

electioneering period remains a fundamental or long-term cause of conflict and it

advances an atmosphere of hostility.

In the build-up to 2007 General Election, mobile phones were used to circulate hate

messages in MIS and the country at large. The electronic and print media were as

well accused of fueling conflict during the campaign periods. Politicians used such

platforms for ethnic segregation, stereotyping and propaganda (Nguni, 22:11:2010;

FGD 3, 23:10:2010; FGD 6, 24:10:2010; FGD 4, 28:10:2010; CIPEV, 2008). The

availability of Information Technology (IT) equipments and network connection had

accelerated instances of ethnic hatred in MIS. The main electronic media

propagating ethnic segregation were FM radio station that broadcast in vernacular.

The vernacular radio stations were popular in MIS and accessible even through

mobile phones. During the research many residents were tuned to FM stations

(Njoka, OI, 21:10:2010, FGD 4, 28:10:2010).