X worn as a crown, and it is thought to represent her
5. The Nomen The last of the king’s five names and the second name written in a
cartouche, it is always preceded by the title “Son of Re,” thus presenting the king as the son of the most powerful of all the sun gods. A famous example of this name is, “Son of Re, Tutankhamen.”
The five names of the pharaoh demonstrate a cru- cial link between his earthly realm and the realm of the gods. On the day of his coronation, the king was proclaimed to be “on the throne of Horus like Re.” Two crowns—a white one for Upper Egypt (south) and a red one for Lower Egypt (north)—were placed on the new pharaoh’s head in two different shrines, one for Udjat of Lower Egypt and one for Nekhbet of Upper Egypt. Thus the gods gave their assent to the king’s rule and admitted him to their realm.
kingS
’
liSt In ancient Egypt there were two kinds of time: mythological (before historic time) and chronological (measured time). Historic dates were recorded by the number of years a king reigned. An important date, such as a festival, was recorded as the year, month, and day of the reign of the current king. For example, it might be recorded that on the second day of the third month of the fourth year of the reign of Tutankhamen, the festival of Opet was celebrated.Mythology tells us that legendary kings ruled in mythological time. The earliest-known kings’ list is the Palermo Stone carved in the Fifth Dynasty. It names mythological rulers who ruled in the time before historic time was recorded.
The Turin Canon of Kings from Dynasty XIX is written on the back of a papyrus that recorded Egyptian tax records. Beginning in mythological times, the Turin Canon of Kings lists the reigns of
the gods, divine beings, and mythological kings and gives a view of how the Egyptians saw their prehis- tory. It tells us that Ptah, Re, and Shu were the first three gods to rule and then goes on to list Egypt’s historic kings. The Turin Canon of Kings ends with the Second Intermediate Period, where the papyrus is fragmented.
A thousand years later, the Egyptian priest Mane- tho (290–230 b.c.) compiled a kings’ list in his History
of Egypt. Manetho left out the mythical kings but
divided the historic kings into ruling families called “dynasties,” and it is his dynastic list that Egyptolo- gists use today. Other kings’ lists were recorded in temples, but today many of them are fragmented or incomplete. On the walls of the temple of Seti I at Abydos is the best-preserved list. Seventy-six kings are named, and Seti and his young son Ramses II, who would become Ramses the Great, are shown making offering to the ancestors. This list ends with Seti’s name and omits certain kings who could not be named as rulers of Egypt. Queen Hatshepsut, who crowned herself king, was not named because she was a woman. Akhenaten was not named because he was branded a heretic who changed the ancient religion. Tutankhamen was not named because he was the son of Akhenaten and associated with the Amarna heresy. And the last two kings of Dynasty Eighteen—Aye and Horemheb—were not named because they were minor kings who ruled for only a short time. It was not just a slight that the names were left off the list. Each year a ritual was performed in the “Hall of the Ancestors” by the king, who recited the names of the ancestors so they would have “bread, beer, cattle, geese, oxen and all things good and pure.” If your name was not read, you could not exist in the next world.
knot of
i
SiSœ
(b
loodofi
sis,
tet)
Calledtet by the Egyptians, the knot of Isis is similar to
the ankh in shape but with what appear to be arms folded downward. It also closely resembles the knot worn by the gods at the top of their kilts. The sign is associated with the blood of Isis in the Book of the Dead. Popular as a funerary amulet, the knot of Isis was carved from red carnelian or jasper or sometimes made of red glass, all of which represented the blood, magic, and power of Isis. When Tutankhamen’s mummy was unwrapped, a red jasper knot of Isis was found among the many magical amulets. According to the Book of the Dead, whoever wears such a knot will gain the protection of Isis and her son Horus, and they will be welcomed into the next world. In 0 kIngs’ lIst
one version of the Book of the Dead, called the Theban Recension, the magical powers of Isis were granted to the deceased if the tet amulet was dipped in the sap of the ankh-imy plant, placed in sycamore wood, and then placed on the mummy. An incanta- tion completed the spell: “Let the blood of Isis and the magical words of Isis be mighty and protect and keep safely this great god [the deceased] and to guard him from that which is harmful.” With this special protection from Isis and the tet amulet, the deceased could travel anywhere he or she wished in the Under- world. The tet was often combined with the djed
pillar, a symbol for Osiris, as decorative elements on jewelry and temple walls, beds, and sarcophagi.
k
om elS
huqAfA A catacomb used for burials during the Roman period. Even after Egypt had been declared a Roman province by Octavian in 30 b.c., there remained a fascination with the gods and religion of Egypt. Attesting to this fascination is the curious mixture of Egyptian mythology as understood by the Romans that appears in the Kom el Shuqafa catacombs, built in Alexandria in the first and second centuries a.d. A descending passageway from the top of a hill allowed the deceased to be low- ered by ropes into the catacomb, which has several levels. A vestibule on the first level provided cut rock benches where mourners could gather. The Romans, adopting the Egyptian custom of having a last meal with the deceased and feasting in their honor each year, created an underground banquet room with low benches so they could dine Roman style, reclining on cushions while the meal was served. The bodies of mummified Romans were buried on the lower levels in niches carved into the stone. In an attempt to recognize both Roman and Egyptian gods, the rotunda is decorated with Egyptian papyrus capitals, a winged sun disk, and a falcon soaring overhead. One niche shows a man and woman in Roman dress,serpents wearing Egyptian royal crowns and holding the baton of the Greek god Hermes, and Medusa’s head on a shield. Kom el Shuqafa is unique in its curious mixture of Egyptian and Greek and Roman mythology.
k
omo
mbo The temple at Kom Ombo, about 25 miles north of Aswan, is dedicated to two gods at once, Horus and Sobek. The temple was divided into two sections with a separate door and aisle for each god. Half was dedicated to Horus as Haroeris (Horus son of Re) and the other half to Sobek, the crocodile. Crocodiles sacred to Sobek were mummified when they died, and many of their mummies have been discovered in the temple. Because Kom Ombo, built by the Ptolemies, lacks a roof, the carvings on the walls are illuminated by the bright sunlight, and it is easy to detect the Greek influence on the art in this temple. All of the gods and goddesses appear with fuller figures than those created in earlier times.k
optoS The cult center of the fertility god, Min, Koptos is about 25 miles north of Thebes (modern Luxor) and in ancient times was the last stop for caravans before entering the Wadi Hammamat, a hostile desert route between Thebes and the Red Sea. Koptos is one of Egypt’s earliest settlements, dating from about 3000 b.c., when colossal statues of the god Min adorned the temple complex. Part of a ruined temple from the New Kingdom (1550–1066 b.c.) still remains, and a small temple to Isis was built during the Ptolemaic period (332–32 b.c.).k
uk AnDk
uket In the creation story that originated in Hermopolis, Kuk and Kuket were part of the Ogdoad, or original eight gods who created the world. Kuk had a frog’s head, and Kuket had the head of a serpent. Together they represented darkness.0
l
AmentAtionS ofi
SiS(l
amentations ofi
sis andn
ephthys)
The Lamentations of Isis are the rituals and prayers performed during a vigil for Osiris. Three separate texts have been given modern names: Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys, Songs of Isis and Nephthys, and Hour Watches. Each lamentation has specific instructions on how and when to perform the ritual and who should recite the lamentation. The Songs of Isis and Nephthys were meant to be sung only in Osiris Temples on special designated days, probably because they were part of a larger ceremony performed on those days. The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys were to be reenacted with chanting and dramatic readings only on the 26th day and were performed only in certain temples. The Hour Watches required special prayers at specified hours during the day.Mythology tells us that after Isis had gathered all the scattered pieces of her husband’s body and reassembled them, she buried Osiris on the island of Biga, near Philae. The faithful Isis visited her husband’s tomb each day, bringing milk to rejuvenate his body while she sang songs to soothe him. Because of Isis’s devotion to Osiris, she was seen as the eternal mourner. The story of Isis’s grief was a favorite theme, told over and over, with temple singers playing the parts of Isis and Nephthys as they lamented the death of Osiris. The story of his life and death was reenacted in great detail and ended with the resurrection and worship of Osiris in the Netherworld.
The directions for the ritual called for two women with beautiful bodies, attended by two priests, to kneel before the door of the Hall of Appearances. The names Isis and Nephthys are written on their arms. They hold faience jars filled with Nile water in their right hands and loaves of bread baked in Memphis in their left hands. The women chant the prayers for the deceased, in complete seclusion, at the third and eighth hour of the day.
A Ptolemaic papyrus records that the hymn was recited by Isis and Nephthys for Osiris-Khentamenti, the great god, lord of Abydos:
Isis recites:
Come to your house, come to your house! You of On [referring to Osiris’ association with the sun god in Heliopolis], come
to your house, Your foes are not . . .
While I can see you I call to you, Weeping to the height of heaven!
But you do not hear my voice, though I am your sister (and wife) whom you
loved on Earth,
You loved none but me, the sister, the sister! Nephthys recites:
O good King, come to your house! Please your heart, all your foes are not! Your two sisters beside you guard your bier, call for
you in tears . . . Isis recites:
Oh my lord! There is no god like you! Heaven has your ba, earth has your body, Netherworld is filled with your secrets. Your wife is your guard, your son Horus rules the lands . . .
lApiSlAzuli The semiprecious stone lapis lazuli was believed to have magical properties. Its rich dark blue color, often flecked with gold, was considered a symbol of heaven by the ancient Egyptians. The ancient word for lapis lazuli is khesbed. The stone was as valuable as silver or gold, for it was not found in Egypt, and trading expeditions traveled east to
L
8
find the best quality lapis lazuli. In the story of the destruction of mankind, Re is said to have hair of lapis lazuli. In Tales of Magic, a child born to the wife of a priest has signs of divinity that include limbs of gold and a headdress of lapis lazuli.
The great god Amun is often shown with skin the color of lapis lazuli, and the Book of the Dead calls for the heart amulet to be made from lapis lazuli. A love charm in the Leiden-London magical papyrus begins with: “Thou art this scarab of real lapis lazuli . . .” When the mummy of Tutankhamen was discovered, a lapis lazuli amulet of Horus was found among the bandages.
lAw
,
goDDeSS of See Maat, the goddess of truth and justice.letterS to the DeAD The Egyptians believed that when the deceased entered the Netherworld, life would continue much as it had on Earth, with a couple of exceptions. First, since the deceased had become one with Osiris, he or she would have some of the power of the gods. The deceased also was all knowing and, if favorably, inclined could help the living. Sometime before the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians instituted the practice of writing letters to the dead to enlist their help.
Unlike most ancient letters, these were almost always written on bowls that held offerings. A bowl was placed at the tomb of the deceased to whom an appeal was made. Because the entire text had to fit on the bowl, the letters were often brief and lacked details, such as the reason for the request. It was assumed that since the deceased was all knowing, he or she would understand the plea. The following letter to the dead was written in hieratic script on a clay bowl (now in the Louvre Museum in Paris). The message starts at the rim and winds around and around until it reaches the bottom of the bowl. Like most letters to the dead, this letter from a mother to her son consists of five parts:
Address: O Mereri, born to Merti
Greeting: The god Osiris-Khentamenti assures
that you shall live for millions of years, by providing for the breath in your nose and by placing bread and beer by the side of Hathor, lady of the horizon. Your condition is like [one who] lives millions of times by order of the gods who are in the sky and on the Earth.
Praises: You make obstacles to enemies who have
evil characters [and who are] against your house, against your brother, and against your mother [who loves] her excellent son Mereri. You were excellent on Earth and thou art beneficent in the land of the dead. Invocations and offerings are made to you. The Haker Fes- tival is celebrated for you. Bread and beer are placed upon the altar of the god Khentamenti . . . Make yourself my favorite dead person!
Wrong: You know that he said to me, “I shall
report against you and your children.”
Appeal: You report against it; you are in the
place of justification.
Clearly Merti believes her son Mereri understands the wrong that is being done and asks her son to testify in her favor in the divine court before the god.
l
itAny ofr
e A celebration of the sun god’s association with the Netherworld, the Litany of Re appears on the walls of the New Kingdom royal tombs of Thutmose III, Seti I, and Ramses IV in the Valley of the Kings. The text consists of nine litanies, rather than the 12 hours of the night usually mentioned in funerary texts (see Amduat). Each litany includes a description of the sun god, the petition of the deceased (his request for entry into the Netherworld), and the characters met on his journey. Re takes the form of a bird that flies to the Netherworld each night, and like the beings of the underworld, he dwells in a cavern.First Litany The deceased king claims he knows the forms of Re and their names, and he peti- tions Re to open the Netherworld to him.
Second Litany The inhabitants of the Nether- world prepare for the arrival of the deceased king.
Third Litany The deceased king petitions, “May you lead me to the west,” expressing the Egyp- tian universal desire for resurrection.
Fourth Litany Re dispels the darkness and allows those in the Netherworld to see his light, and the deceased king asks for the renewal of his sight and his heart.
Fifth Litany A prayer for the care of the god and for the release of those suffering in the Netherworld.
Sixth Litany The deceased king petitions, “O Re, come to me, o guide.”
Seventh Litany The deceased king recites, “Truly you have caused me to ascend.” His limbs are deified and he becomes a god.
Eighth Litany The text ends with prayers to the “west,” the realm of the dead.
Ninth Litany The deceased king is associated with Re.
lotuS
æ
A symbol of creation in ancient Egypt, the lotus is a symbol for Nefertum, who emerged from a blossom. Another myth tells of the sun coming forth from a lotus blossom floating on the waters of Nun. The association may have arisen naturally, for the petals of the lotus blossom open each morning and close each evening. Tomb paint- ings show banquet guests holding blue lotus blossoms to their noses to enjoy the fragrance. The Greek traveler Herodotus mentions that the Egyptians sometimes ate part of the lotus plant.The lotus served as the emblem for Upper Egypt, while the papyrus plant was the emblem for Lower
Egypt. Their graceful shapes were translated into the lotus and papyrus capitals seen on temple pillars all over Egypt.
l
owere
gypt Because the Nile flows from south to north, northern Egypt, or the Delta, is called Lower Egypt, and Upper Egypt is in the south. Lower Egypt’s crown is the red crown, the plant is the papyrus, and its protective goddess is Wadjet. During Egypt’s Predynastic period, Upper and Lower Egypt were two separate kingdoms. The Narmer Palette commemorates the southern King Narmer’s victory over Lower Egypt and subsequent uniting of the two lands. Many of the foreign gods worshipped in Egypt originated in Lower Egypt, having been imported from Syria.l
uxor Modern name for the site of the ancient city called Waset by the Egyptians and Thebes by the Greeks.