Although the differences among individuals preoccupy many people in music education, the vast thrust of research on child development over this past century has emphasized how similar children are to one another in the fundamental path of development. This similarity comes about because of three important fac-tors: (1) All humans share a common genetic heritage—all human beings are genetically more similar to each other than to any nonhuman animal; (2) all hu-mans share a common environment—we all live on the surface of the same planet, surrounded by similar objects, plants, animals, and humans, which affect us in broadly similar ways; (3) the way in which the environment affects our bodies and brains to bring about physical and psychological change is determined jointly by our genetic makeup and the specific characteristics of our shared
envi-ronments. Large developmental differences often appear to be caused by ex-treme abnormalities in
social
environment (e.g., children deprived of significant human contact and who are socially retarded and lack language; or children“hothoused” in abnormally stimulating early environments and who display characteristics of child prodigies).
One of the most important contributors to the scientific study of common developmental patterns was the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. He was the first to provide a systematic account of children’s intellectual and moral develop-ment in terms of a fixed sequence of phases (or stages) through which most nor-mal children pass in the same order at very comparable ages (Piaget, 1958). His research strategy was to devise a set of tasks presented to the children as games or puzzles, which most children would invariably get wrong or answer ran-domly at one age but which the same children would almost invariably get right a few months later.
One such task involves laying out two rows of identical small objects, such as coins or sweets (see figure 2.3). Row A has more objects in it than row B.
However, row B is spaced out so that its ends are farther apart. The question asked of the children is, Which row has more?
Children under the age of about 7 find this difficult. They either answer in-consistently or, overwhelmed by the visual cue of length, they choose B. Over the age of 7, most children instantly give the correct answer, because they count each row and rely on the outcome of the counting operation, regardless of all other cues. Although psychologists have argued intensely over what precise Development 31
A. * * * * * * * *
B. * * * * * * *
Figure 2.3. Schematic representation of a typical Piagetian comparison task.
cognitive changes underlie this shift in performance, the fact of the shift is un-doubted. This type of shift, at around this age, has been observed with children from a wide range of cultures and social backgrounds. Piaget proposed that at age 7 children enter a stage of “concrete operations,” in which they tend to apply rules and logical reasoning to the tasks that confront them. Note that chil-dren were able to count—correctly—for some time before they decided to prioritize counting over all other means of arriving at the answer to this prob-lem. Their success at the task was not due to suddenly mastering the skill of counting; rather, it signaled a broader cognitive reordering in which they con-sistently grasped
why
counting was the most appropriate strategy (from among a range of strategies available) for problems such as this. Piaget had little or nothing to say about music, but researchers who follow him have been eager to discover whether and how musical development might be similarly con-strained by common phases of development across a wide range of cultures and situations.A very considerable body of data now exists to suggest that musical devel-opment does indeed display a common sequence of stages and typical ages at which specific abilities are displayed. These stages have been demonstrated for perceptual skills (Dowling, 1999), singing (Davidson, McKernon, & Gardner, 1981), notation (Bamberger, 1991; Davidson & Scripp, 1988), and emotional and aesthetic judgment (Gardner, 1973; Kratus, 1993).
One of the most comprehensive stage models available is the “spiral” model (Swanwick & Tillman, 1986, cited in Runfola & Swanwick, 2002; see figure 2.4).
This model was developed to account for observed changes in children’s per-formed compositions in classroom contexts (see also chapter 7). Data were gathered from children between the ages of 3 and 15 and, on the basis of this, four main levels of operation were proposed (with two sequential modes nested within each level, reflecting, respectively, the child’s internal motivation and more external cultural features of music):
Level 1, materials level: up to age 4. In the first “sensory” mode, children ex-plore the pleasantness of sound through spontaneous vocalizations and soundings of instruments and other objects. Experimentation focuses particularly on loud-ness and timbre. In the subsequent “manipulative” mode, children acquire greater ability in handling musical instruments, showing awareness of instrument-specific techniques. Their music making may reflect a regular pulse and other simple con-ventions of music, such as repeated rhythmic and melodic patterns.
Level 2, expression level: ages 5 to 9. This begins with the “personal expres-siveness” mode, during which children convey emotions and stories through spontaneous music, particularly through singing. Expressiveness concentrates on changes in tempo and dynamics. In the “vernacular” mode that follows, chil-dren show a greater conformity to established musical conventions. Their music making is marked by the presence of melodic and rhythmic patterns, regular meter, and standard phrase lengths.
32 Musical Learning
Level 3, form level: ages 10 to 15. In the first “speculative” mode, young musicians show growing interest in deviating from the musical conventions dis-covered in the previous mode. They experiment with ways of varying patterns and adding contrast to their music, often at the expense of larger structural co-hesion. In the subsequent “idiomatic” mode, they are better able to integrate their imaginative ideas into recognizable styles. Musical authenticity becomes very important, as does technical, expressive, and structural control. There is greater emphasis on imitating existing musical styles, often popular ones.
Level 4, value level: ages 15 and up. This level may never be attained by some people. In the “symbolic” mode, musicians become aware of its language-like affective function. Larger compositional qualities, such as groups of timbres Development 33
(15+)
(10–15)
Meta-cognition
Imaginative play
(4–9)
(0–4) Imitation
Mastery
Toward Social Sharing Materials
Expression Form Value
Symbolic
Systematic
Speculative
Idiomatic
Personal
Vernacular
Manipulative Sensory
Figure 2.4. Swanwick and Tillman’s (1986) spiral of musical development. From “The Sequence of Musical Development,” by K. Swanwick and J. Tillman, 1986, British Journal of Music Education, 3(3), p. 306. Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge
University Press.
or harmonic progressions, are given greater attention. In the final “systematic”
mode, advanced musicians begin to approach music in innovative or sophisti-cated ways. This may mean employing novel compositional systems or studying and discussing music from various intellectual perspectives (e.g., philosophical, psychological).
The initial observations that led to this particular model were culturally spe-cific. They took place in state-funded schools in the United Kingdom as part of a teaching program that encouraged and supported children in developing and presenting their own compositions. Some of the classificatory methods used have been criticized for being insufficiently scientifically rigorous (Lamont, 1995).
Nonetheless, Swanwick (1991) has provided evidence for similar patterns of development in different countries. In sum, from all the available data, of which this model systematizes only a small part, it is possible to see a number of broad patterns emerging that seem to characterize normal musical development:
1. Receptive (perceptual and aural) skills precede productive (performance and compositional) skills. Children are able to make discriminations and distinctions in what they hear significantly before they are able to pro-duce those features reliably. In this, music is exactly similar to most other symbolic skills (such as language).
2. Spontaneity precedes control in productive skills. Children begin with free, somewhat undisciplined experimentation and then naturally move to more ordered and controlled use of elements.
3. Concrete operations precede abstract ones. Early conceptualizations are holistic. Only later can children acquire the capacity to break down musi-cal objects into their component parts and transform and recombine them (going from global to local features). For example, the ability to imagine musical objects appears relatively late in the developmental sequence.
4. Key developmental changes occur through acculturation (see chapter 1).
This is the normal exposure gained by all children within a culture, ex-cluding specific specialist training. There is considerable evidence that children who have had specific musical training (e.g., lessons on a specific instrument) do no better on a range of general perceptual and production tasks than do children without specialist training. Their superiority is found mainly in those specific tasks that the training has addressed.
5. Higher levels of achievement and the later stages of development require more support than acculturation can supply and are typically not reached at a consistent age—or at all—by significant numbers of people (see chapter 1).
What is the right age to introduce children to musical activities and have them start learning a musical instrument? This is one of the questions most often asked of professional musicians; there is no simple answer. No age is too young for some form of musical engagement that will lead to productive learning.
34 Musical Learning
However, the engagement must be appropriate to the capacity and However, the engagement must be appropriate to the capacity and developmen-tal sta
tal stage ofge of the chithe child. ld. A clear eA clear exampxample ofle of this rthis relates telates to the teao the teaching ching ofof musmusicalical notation (a relatively abstract skill). The evidence is quite strong that children notation (a relatively abstract skill). The evidence is quite strong that children cannot profit from formal instruction in notation until they have had cannot profit from formal instruction in notation until they have had consider-able experience in handling musical sounds “by ear” (McPherson & able experience in handling musical sounds “by ear” (McPherson & Gabriels-son, 2002).
son, 2002).
Processes of
Processes of acculturation havacculturation have an informal qualitye an informal quality. The essential featur. The essential feature of e of informal learning is that the individual is free to participate or not and to take informal learning is that the individual is free to participate or not and to take the activity at his or her own pace. Formal assessments are absent (even though the activity at his or her own pace. Formal assessments are absent (even though feedback may be available to the participant). As such, learning through feedback may be available to the participant). As such, learning through accul-turation very of
turation very often has a quality often has a quality of play (Hargreaplay (Hargreaves, 1986). Successves, 1986). Successful earlyful early instruction builds on that informal gamelike structure rather than overturning it instruction builds on that informal gamelike structure rather than overturning it (e.g., parent-child song games, call and response, etc.).
(e.g., parent-child song games, call and response, etc.).
The developmental literature makes quite clear that most children do not The developmental literature makes quite clear that most children do not have the capacity to f
have the capacity to focus systematically on instrument-specocus systematically on instrument-specific techniques un-ific techniques un-til around the age of
til around the age of 4. Bef4. Before that age, instruore that age, instruments can be used rather to illus-ments can be used rather to illus-trate g
trate general cheneral characteristics aracteristics ofof soundsound-produ-producing ocing objects anbjects and to d to ffacilitateacilitate human interaction with those objects. Musical games involving singing, human interaction with those objects. Musical games involving singing, danc-ing, and movement, however, can be successfully introduced almost as soon as ing, and movement, however, can be successfully introduced almost as soon as the child shows some capacity for attentive and controlled response. All early the child shows some capacity for attentive and controlled response. All early instruction req
instruction requires high leuires high levels ofvels of skillful adskillful adult support and interaction to sus-ult support and interaction to sus-tain a producti
tain a productive yve yet gamelike enet gamelike environment. Childrvironment. Children beloen below the age ofw the age of 6 are6 are generally not capab
generally not capable ofle of solitary or self-directed ssolitary or self-directed study on an instrtudy on an instrument. This isument. This is the reason that socially rich systems such as the Suzuki method appear to be the reason that socially rich systems such as the Suzuki method appear to be necessary for very early instrumental activities. Such systems involve a great necessary for very early instrumental activities. Such systems involve a great deal of
deal ofgrogroup learnup learning and thing and the strone strong cooperg cooperation ofation ofpareparents in all aspnts in all aspects ofects ofthethe program.
program.
Lessons that focus on structured performance targets and the deliberate Lessons that focus on structured performance targets and the deliberate im-prov
provement ofement ofcontrol and accuracy are procontrol and accuracy are probably not going to mesh with the norbably not going to mesh with the nor- -mal child’
mal child’s capacities s capacities until the secountil the second halfnd half ofof Swanwick Swanwick and Tand Tillman’illman’s (1986)s (1986) expression level (vernacular mode), when the child becomes naturally able to expression level (vernacular mode), when the child becomes naturally able to focus on conformity to external standards and structures. Typically this occurs focus on conformity to external standards and structures. Typically this occurs between the ages o
between the ages off 6 and 8. This is the u6 and 8. This is the usual age at which research has shosual age at which research has shownwn that professional musicians begin formal instrumental lessons (see Sloboda, that professional musicians begin formal instrumental lessons (see Sloboda, Davidson, Howe, & Moore, 1996). However, even here there are considerable Davidson, Howe, & Moore, 1996). However, even here there are considerable degrees of
degrees oflatitude. latitude. At one extreme are instrumAt one extreme are instruments such as the violin and piano,ents such as the violin and piano, much of
much of whoswhose classical repe classical repertoire requiertoire requires unusures unusual degreal degrees ofes of manumanual dexter-al dexter-ity and bodily coordination. For these instru
ity and bodily coordination. For these instruments the highest lements the highest levels ofvels of achievachieve- e-ment require early starting ages, mostly before age 8. At the other extreme are ment require early starting ages, mostly before age 8. At the other extreme are instruments that, through their size, their repertoire, or their less demanding instruments that, through their size, their repertoire, or their less demanding physical characteristics, can be successfully taken up at relatively late ages.
physical characteristics, can be successfully taken up at relatively late ages.
These include the larger instruments, such as double-bass, tuba, and a range of These include the larger instruments, such as double-bass, tuba, and a range of wind and brass
wind and brass instruments (Linzenkirchinstruments (Linzenkirchner & ner & Eger-Harsch, 1995).Eger-Harsch, 1995).
Development
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