The Notion of Learning

The notion of learning is, as is knowledge, ambiguous due to the many facets that are included in the word. Learning is not easy to encapsulate by reference to a single sentence in giving a clear and distinct definition of the word. According to Weick and Westley (1996) is the word learning elusive due to imprecise definitions of to the word organization, misinterpretations of the verb learning, and whether learning is an individual or organizational phenomenon.

Some definitions and precisions concerning the notion of learning are as follows. According to Argyris and Schon (1978) is learning in organizations “the detection and correction of errors” (p 3.) According to March (1991) is learning about “refinement and extension of existing competences, technologies and paradigms…and experimentation with

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new alternatives” (p. 85). According to Weick and Westley (1996), learning is about “repunctuating continuous experience…” (p. 456).

Learning in organizations is based upon individual learning (Argyris and Schon, 1978; Argyris 1993). Individual workers acquire ‘experiences’ when accomplishing work tasks and they use these experiences to improve work tasks and procedures in work practices (van Heijst, et al., 1998).

In this thesis work, learning is assessed by the following statement: learning is about

acquiring knowledge about the things we do in some way in any situation. This statement points to several (apparent an unapparent) distinguishing features of learning: (a) learning is

about getting hold of knowledge, (b) learning is related to activity and (c) learning takes

place in any situation where knowledge is acquired. This notion of learning pinpoints the word learning as a process and knowledge as an outcome of learning. According to Weick and Westley (1996) is the verb learning elusive due to that the word learning refers to both an outcome and a process, giving it a circular and tautological meaning. In this thesis work I conceive that learning is a way to acquire knowledge and knowledge is what is acquired in any learning situation.

Learning situations are any situation where learning takes place, e.g. at work or elsewhere off the job. In this thesis, learning is conceived as cyclic process. Conceptualizing learning as cyclic process is a common way of conceiving learning (Ellström, 1999).

A learning theory that builds upon a cyclic conception of learning is experiential learning theory. Experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984; Kolb and Boyatzis, 2000) is a theory that conceives learning as a cyclic process in so-called learning cycles. Experiential learning theory is a holistic model of the learning process. Two distinguishing features in the experiential learning theory according to Swieringa and Wierdsma (1992) are: (a) that of not

equating learning with the acquisition of knowledge and (b) that of equating learning with doing activities (e.g. learning by doing, problem solving or problem oriented learning). The theory emphasizes experience as central to learning. Kolb (1984) defines learning as: “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience.” (p. 41) The experiential learning model depict two related modes of grasping experience, (a) concrete

experience and (b) abstract conceptualization, and two related modes of transforming experience, (a) reflective observation and (b) active experimentation (Kolb, 1984; Kolb and Boyatzis, 2000). These modes make up the experiential learning cycle (model). The experiential learning cycle depicts a learning situation in four sequential steps. The experiential learning cycle is illustrated in Figure 3-3.

3 Central Concepts Concrete experience (1) Reflective observations (2) Abstract conceptualization (3) Active experimentation (4)

Figure 3-3 The experiential learning cycle (model) (amended from Kolb, 1984)

Immediate or concrete experiences are the sources for observations and reflections. These reflections are taken in and refined into abstract concepts from which new implications for activity can be drawn. These implications can be actively tested and serve as guides in creating new experiences. (Kolb, 1984; Kolb and Boyatzis, 2000)

Concrete experience, abstract conceptualization, reflective observation, and active experimentation are different modes in the experiential learning cycle. Distinguishing features of these modes are (Kolb and Boyatzis, 2000):

• Concrete experience is about experiencing the concrete, tangible, felt qualities of the world, relying on once senses and immersing oneself in a concrete reality.

• Reflective observation is about watching others who are involved in the experience and/or reflect on what happens.

• Abstract conceptualization is about perceiving, grasping, and/or taking hold of new information through symbolic representation or thinking about, analyzing, or systematically planning.

• Active experimentation is about jumping right in and start doing things.

An ideal learning situation in making sense of the world encompasses all these modes in a sequential and cyclic manner. According to Kolb (1994) and Kolb and Boyatzis (2000) is an ideal learning situation rarely to be found in practice. In practice, learning is to at least combine one of two ways of grasping experience with one of two ways of transforming experience. This way of reasoning gives four types of learning situations (four sets of modes):

• Abstract conceptualization and active experimentation (3→4) • Concrete experience and reflective observation (1→2)

• Abstract conceptualization and reflective observation (3→2) • Concrete experience and active experimentation (1→ 4)

These sets of modes follow the same schemata in grasping and transforming experience but differ in character. In that sense, people continually choose which set of modes they will

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use in a specific learning situation. This is according to Kolb (1984) and Kolb and Boyatzis (2000) because of an intrinsic conflict between concrete and abstract and between active and reflective. In that way, the set of learning modes people use in a specific learning situation is different combinations in grasping and transforming experience. What combination to use, in a situation is relative to peoples’ hereditary equipment, past experiences, and the demands of present environment (ibid.). These combinations (sets of modes) also bring about different ways of learning (i.e. learning styles in Kolb, 1984; Kolb and Boyatzis, 2000).

In this thesis work, experiential learning theory is used as a way to emphasize that learning is based upon the cyclic process of making sense of experiences. A central idea in the experiential learning cycle is that it considers that everyday activities can be a component of learning processes. Learning is a process that is set off by people when they do activity and understand the impact of that activity, that is to (a) understand the impact an activity has so that if the same activity was undertaken it would be possible to anticipate what would follow from doing the activity and (b) to understand the general rule under which the particular activity falls. In that sense, the learning process can reinforce current activity or make way for a change in activity due to that the impact activity have do not have the intended impact. The experiential learning cycle makes that process visible and possible to scrutinize relative to different phases. In that sense it can be used to plan and to support learning activities and such planning and support is very much what this thesis is about. Developing information systems for learning and acquiring of work requires that the learning activities and processes a system supports are scrutinized in a way that it makes it possible to align information system support to such learning activities and processes. In that sense is the experiential learning cycle applicable due to that it separates difference phases and recollects connections between phases concerning learning in a mutual way.